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| More than a shadow cast: Bringing Rocky Horror to life |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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Story by hope heffley
photos by brennan campbell
video by megan geisler
in early september, while the rest of campus is starting classes and settling into their dorms, members of alpha psi omega begin the long-awaited process of putting together their shadow cast performance of “ the rocky horror picture show .”
an article written by zach schofeld for history dives into how the film became a “cult classic.” The campy comedy-horror musical first premiered in august 1975 at the rialto theatre in london, according to history. The story follows an innocent young couple, brad majors and janet weiss, who take cover from a storm in a castle filled with eccentric characters, and run by dr. Frank-n-furter, a gender-bending scientist from the planet “transexual,” according to imdb .
when initially released the film performed poorly at the box office, according to smithsonian magazine . That was until theaters began doing midnight screenings of the film, and fans showed up in costume and turned each showing into an immersive party experience, according to smithsonian magazine.
alpha psi omega is wku’s honors theater and dance fraternity on campus, according to their social media . Elizabeth grant, one of the two co-directors of the show, said this year’s cast and crew was the largest she thinks they’ve had since halting performances due to covid-19 , and maybe the largest ever.
the cast practices blocking with the director, garrett milby, on the capitol stage for the “time warp” dance scene at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
dr. Everett v. Scott, played by nandy shemwell, rests behind the stage with the cast before a full run-through at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
the cast waits at front of stage for further direction before a quick blocking run-through on the capitol stage on oct. 29, 2026.
grant said the midnight performance at the capitol theater has been a tradition for a long time. She said this continued until 2020, when alpha psi omega halted production for two years to follow social distancing protocols.
grant said this year’s production included 15 people in the ensemble and 12 in the principal cast, in addition to the three-person production team, stage manager, assistant stage manager, as well as props, costume and makeup teams.
the production and leadership team was composed of grant and her co-director garrett milby, in addition to choreographer david kappel.
“it takes a village,” grant said.
grant is getting her bachelor of fine arts in musical theater, but said her passion truly lies in directing. She said this was her first time co-directing a show, and with the time constraints put on preparation, having another person split the workload was a huge help.
the director, garrett milby, runs through the story at the first rehearsal on the capitol stage on oct. 29, 2026. Adjusting movement accordingly and figuring out actor placements during a rehearsal is called blocking.
wedding guests during the first scene of the movie get in between audience members and the stage to take pictures of the newlyweds at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
the opening to the rocky horror picture show is famous among fans; the lips a recognizable symbol for the film. This rendition features the lips of patricia quinn, who also plays magenta in the film, at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
“having someone to bounce ideas off of and take over when i can’t, just making sure it’s something we can both do and prioritize without becoming too much and keeps it fun,” grant said.
grant said working through the show with a partner has fostered a lot of creative choices that the cast and audience love to see.
grant said the group practiced in the evening in gordon wilson hall, blocking on the capitol theater stage to ensure all the big aspects of the production fit and flourish in the small space.
stepping into the spotlight
gabe boykin, a senior theater major, played dr. Frank-n-furter in the shadow cast production. Boykin said that when he first learned he got the role, he felt a sense of pressure to live up to such an iconic performance by tim curry , the original dr. Frank-n-furter in the 1975 film.
“it’s definitely a heavy weight on my shoulders,” boykin said. “This opportunity to carry a legacy for someone so monumental in queer and camp and just generally all movie and media spaces.”
dr. Frank-n-furter and rocky leave the lab for the first time together, the actors mimicking what is happening on the big screen at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
the actors mimic what is happening on the screen, down to the facial expressions. Dr. Frank-n-furter gives a speech about his latest creation, both on the screen and on stage, at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
columbia cries out as frank-n-furter kills eddie with a pickaxe at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026, as he disagreed with eddie’s loud personality and rock n’ roll style. The actors used a red feather boa to simulate blood in this scene.
boykin said the cast practiced every rehearsal with the movie playing behind them, just like they did in the final performance. He said the day they went off screen and performed on their own was one of the most freeing and confidence-boosting days of rehearsal.
“you would think it’s almost a little more anxiety-inducing, but it’s less knowing that no one can necessarily look and be like, you’re in the wrong place,” boykin said. “It gives us more freedom to just do, and be, and act.”
boykin said the point of a shadow cast is not to imitate the film exactly. He said grant and milby often encouraged the cast to make creative choices and find their own unique details to bring to the character.
“they don’t want us to be exactly like the movie; if you wanted to just be exactly like the movie, you’d just go watch the movie,” said boykin.
boykin said there’s a balance between finding their own version of the role and lining up timing, reactions and body language with the film playing in the background. He said “the rocky horror picture show” has a dedicated fanbase, and many people feel deeply connected to the story and characters. He said this makes certain aspects of the show vital, as audience members look forward to certain parts like the pommel horse scene .
(from left to right) dr. Frank-n-furter, played by gabe boykin, rocky, played by elijah powers and eddie played by forest darst, chat backstage by the props table before rehearsing at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
boykin said he and the rest of the cast spent an extended amount of time learning how a character reacts to other characters, how they walk and stand or, specifically for his character, how they move their mouth.
“i spent a solid week trying to figure out how frank’s mouth moves. Tim curry has such an interesting way of speaking,” boykin said. “It’s also difficult trying to make sure the audience likes it and i’m actually saying what is supposed to be said, and the audience understands that.”
building chemistry on and off stage
nate grayson, a freshman theater major, and anna morneau, a sophomore interdisciplinary studies major, played the conservative and sheltered couple, brad majors and janet weiss .
grant said auditions for the production were open to all of campus, and it was not required that students be studying in the theater and dance department.
nate grayson, playing brad majors, and anna morneau, playing janet weiss, rehearse blocking while the rest of the cast prepare props and get behind stage at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
morenau said despite this, the fact that she was not an official member of the fraternity convinced her she would not get a main role.
morneau said she auditioned with her roommate because she missed performing in high school theater. She said cast lists were announced the same day as auditions, around midnight. She said she was in bed when her roommate spammed her messages and call line, waiting to scream over the phone that morneau had received one of the lead roles.
morneau said she had never seen the film until the first rehearsal and watch party.
“not having seen it before and getting a main role, i was like, ‘there’s absolutely no way,’” morneau said.
grayson, like morneau, said he had not seen the film until auditioning for the show. He said he watched it for the first time on the day of auditions, looking for inspiration. He said he did not anticipate getting the role of majors, especially because of the characters he read for while auditioning.
rocky and janet are found sleeping together, which undermines janet’s engagement to brad and frank-n-furter’s belief in his control over rocky at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
brad and janet sing “over at the frankenstein place” on stage at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026. This scene is right before they meet the rest of the cast at frank-n-furter’s castle, where the majority of the story takes place.
eddie and colombia dance promiscuously to the horror of brad and janet while singing “hot patootie (bless my soul)” at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
brad, played by nate grayson, and janet, played by anna morneau, introduce themselves to riff-raff, played by emory heckman, dr. Frank-n-furter’s “faithful handyman” who is a servant at the castle at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
grayson said auditions for the show consisted of a dance and freestyle portion in addition to three monologues of anonymous characters that they received and practiced for the first time the day of.
grayson said each person was given three monologues classified as male, female or an option called the “wacky wild.” Since he watched the movie only hours before, he said he was able to pick up that his monologues were frank-n-furter, columbia and dr. Scott .
morneau said that, before really diving into janet’s character, she viewed her as a surface-level, innocent girl, but after playing her for almost two months, her perspective changed.
“she has a good, definite change once she gets into the castle,” morneau said. “She kind of feels like this is who she really is and she doesn’t have to hide behind brad. She’s very much a follower of brad, so i think she’s newly awakened sexually or just personality-wise.”
columbia and magenta make fun of brad and janet as they watch the two have extramarital affairs involving frank-n-furter on security cameras at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
morneau said this character progression is prominent in the buildup of janet’s songs and scene placement throughout the show.
grayson said this same character growth is true for majors throughout the production.
“he’s very much your stereotype of a straight man, but that’s sort of the dichotomy of the show,” grayson said. “Brad and janet are supposed to represent the prior generation that’s scared of rock music and sex. Initially, i noticed that brad in the movie is very stiff…but as it progresses, he’s eventually in a corset and booty shorts; he’s fully flexing and stretching.”
grayson said majors and weiss spend the entire first half of the show essentially glued to one another in every song and every scene; they are right by each other’s side.
“we basically have to move like a unit. I’m either holding her or by her side,” grayson said.
grayson said throughout preparation for the show he would show up at morneau’s door, and they would mark out spacing, put on the movie and just practice moving together.
“we worked on intimacy,” grayson said. “And when i say intimacy, i mean it in the sense that we are physically in close proximity to each other for half the show. We need to be comfortable being close to each other.”
frank-n-furter interrogates dr. Everett v. Scott, a friend and former teacher of brad and janet, at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
grayson said they would often do exercises of hugging, making direct eye contact and doing trust falls. Morneau said that every time they saw each other, regardless of setting, they hugged and made a point to make time to chat and become friends outside of the show.
morneau said “the rocky horror picture show” deals heavily with sexually explicit content. She said the cast constantly did something they called “boundary checks” with each other, where they consistently asked what their scene partner was okay with. She said this comfortability changed on a regular basis.
“maybe i’m comfortable with you touching certain parts of my body, but other parts i’m not so comfortable with, but next time that changes. I think that is really helpful and normalizes the fact that it’s okay to be comfortable with things and uncomfortable with things,” morneau said.
a show for community and expression
boykin said the story of “the rocky horror picture show” has a history deeply rooted in queer identity and culture, but when the film was released, it wasn’t considered a huge hit with audiences. He said that many theaters began doing midnight showings, and these events morphed into campy, glitter-filled spaces for connection and, at times, spaces for political advocacy and organization.
boykin said the open environment contributed to the show’s long-lasting legacy; audiences began dressing in full costume, bringing props and participating in the performance while the movie played.
backstage, the prop table holds some of the props from the show at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026, including rocky’s birthday weight set and the pickaxe used by dr. Frank-n-furter to kill eddie.
“it sort of became a place and a community where people who weren’t necessarily accepted or fit into what society deems normal could go and portray themselves,” boykin said.
grant said that this supportive community space is something that’s carried into modern productions of the show and continues to make room for conversations about sexuality, gender and societal norms.
grant said she is honored and incredibly proud to have been a part of that space throughout her collegiate years. She said it is important for college arts programs to be uplifting, and that freedom with performances and shows should always be encouraged.
“i feel like now more than ever, it’s really important that it’s encouraged, especially from a university standpoint,” grant said. “We’re all here to learn, we’re all here to grow and i think one of the best ways that you can learn and grow is by experiencing art.”
the opening song between janet and brad begins when brad proposes, leading into the song “damn it, janet” at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
riff-raff, played by emory heckman, and columbia, played by maggie earls, set up rocky’s tank during rehearsal at the capitol theater on oct. 29, 2026.
dr everett v. Scott, played by nandy shemwell, and janet, played by anna morneau, chat behind stage with the rest of the cast before a full run-through at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026.
she said the theater and dance department’s main show was “ cabaret ,” which centers around the nazi rise in pre-world war ii germany.
“it’s such a powerful show and powerful message,” grant said. “And i think it’s really important that these types of shows are being done.”
grant said the arts reach people, and in a time when many minority communities continue to be ostracized, stereotyped and discriminated against, the arts are more important than ever.
“the arts have always been and always will be, in my opinion, the best way to communicate change,” grant said. “Society reflects art, and art reflects society. Since the beginning of time, people have been using performance and theater to change people’s minds and influence people for the better.”
nate grayson, playing brad, and anna morneau, playing janet, practice blocking for their introductory scene at the capitol on oct. 29, 2026. |
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| Colorado transgender ballot measures could get legislative challenge - NewsBreak |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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By tori mason ,
1 hours ago
colorado transgender ballot measures spark plans for legislative challenge as votes are counted 03:07
as colorado voters move closer to deciding two ballot measures restricting transgender youth, advocates are already preparing to challenge the proposed laws. Propositions 134 and 135 continued to lead wednesday night.
proposition 134 would require school and college sports teams to be designated by biological sex or as coed, restricting transgender students from participating on teams that dont match their biological sex.
proposition 135 would prohibit certain gender-related surgeries for minors and restrict insurance coverage for those procedures.
supporters say the measures are necessary to protect children and ensure fairness in girls sports. Opponents argue they would discriminate against transgender youth and interfere with decisions that should be made by families and medical professionals.
for some colorado families, the impact of the election results is already emotional.
cbs
absolute devastation. I walked into my kids school today, and parents were crying on me, said z williams, director of bread and roses legal center.
williams helped write colorados kelly loving act, which expanded protections for transgender people.
now, they say those protections arent disappearing without a challenge.
we have some of the best policies in place in terms of anti-discrimination and healthcare protections that still exist, and they will remain existing. And also, we have a plan to fight, williams said.
williams said advocates began preparing for the possibility of the measures passing about two months before election day. Their next steps include pushing state lawmakers to repeal the restrictions if voters approve them.
protect kids colorado, the organization behind the measures, says the results reflect concerns families have raised for years.
for years, colorado families asked their elected representatives to take these concerns seriously, only to see legislation repeatedly rejected at the capitol, chairman kevin lundberg said in a statement. Yesterday, coloradans spoke for themselves. They have made clear that the legislatures refusal to act did not reflect the will of the people.
governor-elect phil weiser is already questioning how proposition 134 could be implemented.
were going to have to take a look at these anti-trans measures and what adjustments are necessary and appropriate, weiser said during a wednesday news conference. I dont believe it would be acceptable to colorado to have every student athlete have to go through full body examinations.
the proposition does not explicitly require physical examinations, but weiser raised concerns about how schools would verify students eligibility to participate in sports.
the passage of proposition 134 could also complicate an ongoing legal battle between jeffco public schools and the federal government.
the district sued the u.S. Department of education earlier this year following allegations that its policies allowing transgender students to participate in girls sports violated title ix.
jeffco has argued that its policies comply with colorados anti-discrimination protections.
university of colorado law professor scott skinner-thompson, who specializes in lgbtq law, says proposition 134 could weaken part of the districts legal argument.
if this measure passes, it would presumably limit the ability for school districts to respond by saying, oh, my state law requires this, skinner-thompson explained.
but even if voters approve the propositions, the restrictions would not necessarily be permanent.
unlike constitutional amendments, both measures would change colorado statutes, meaning state lawmakers could later revise or repeal them.
this is only a statutory amendment, so it can be amended by other statutory mechanisms, meaning the legislature or another citizen referendum, skinner-thompson said.
whether lawmakers would take that step remains uncertain.
transgender advocates are planning a demonstration at the state capitol on saturday, november 7, calling for lawmakers to repeal both measures if approved.
this is not over. This is just the beginning, williams said.
protect kids colorado is also warning lawmakers against trying to repeal the measures. In response to questions from cbs colorado, the group said legislators should expect fierce opposition and political accountability if they attempt to reverse the results. The organization says its legal team is closely monitoring the situation and is prepared to pursue every available legal avenue to defend the propositions.
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| 40 cadets graduate from Kentucky State Police academy |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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Frankfort, ky. — Gov. Andy beshear joined the kentucky state police on oct. 30 to honor 40 cadets graduating from the ksp training academy and beginning their careers as state troopers.
“thank you for your hard work, sacrifice, and commitment to service above self each and every day,” beshear said. “All of kentucky is grateful for the role you will play in keeping our communities safe.”
cadet class 107 reported to the academy may 17 and completed 24 weeks of academic instruction and practical training. The cadets received more than 1,000 hours of classroom and field study to prepare for modern law enforcement work.
training covered constitutional, juvenile and traffic law; use of force; weapons training; defensive tactics; first aid; high-speed vehicle pursuits; criminal investigations; computer literacy; hostage negotiations; evidence collection; radio procedures; search and seizure; crash investigations; drug identification; traffic and crowd control; armed robbery response; electronic, sex and hate crimes; domestic violence; bomb threats; and hazardous materials.
ksp commissioner phillip burnett jr. Commended the class for completing academy training and answering the call to serve kentucky.
“becoming a kentucky state police trooper takes grit, determination and a genuine commitment to the people we serve,” burnett said. “Each member of this class has demonstrated the ability to rise to challenges and uphold the expectations of this profession.”
capt. Joey vorbeck, commander of the ksp academy, said the program aims to develop troopers with the knowledge, skills, judgment and character required to serve.
“throughout their 24 weeks of training, these cadets have faced demanding physical challenges, rigorous coursework and situations that tested their resolve,” vorbeck said. “They have demonstrated tremendous growth and earned the opportunity to take the next step in their careers.”
the graduates and their assigned posts are:
post 2, madisonville: eddie caudill, hopkinsville; christian crase, ardmore, oklahoma; trey lovell, greenville; avery grant mefford, browder; kelley seitz, oak grove; and roy wilson, nortonville.
post 16, henderson: camden greer, boonville, indiana, and jermaine poynter jr., Henderson.
several graduates received special recognition during the ceremony. Trooper peyton nash (post 4, elizabethtown) received the ernie bivens award, given to a cadet who, in the opinion of the academy and fellow cadets, demonstrates leadership, strives for academic excellence and excels in physical and vocational training.
trooper peter rougeux (post 1, mayfield) received the class valedictorian award, which includes a new 2026 dodge durango police cruiser. Trooper tristan thomas was named salutatorian.
trooper christian crase (post 2, madisonville) received the commissioner’s commitment to excellence award, presented to a cadet who demonstrates leadership, a desire to get the job done and a determination to be the best each day.
thirteen cadets earned associate degrees in general occupational and technical studies from bluegrass community and technical college during their 24 weeks at the academy. The graduates benefited from hiring guidelines established by the state legislature in 2017. Under the guidelines, applicants with a high school diploma or ged and three years of full-time work experience may apply to become a state trooper and earn an associate degree during training.
the graduates who earned associate degrees are cayden bennett, tristan bingham, jonathan collett, anthony cromer, kaden henry, blake aaron hensley, logan lundy, toni mccombs, maddox mink, riley mullins, patrick smith, zachary smith and tyler whitaker. |
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| Simple survey may predict older adults long-term mortality risk, study finds |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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A simple questionnaire assessing older adults’ intrinsic capacity may predict long-term mortality risk with accuracy comparable to detailed clinical testing, a research team at kyung hee university medical center said wednesday.
the team included professors kim sun-young and won chang-won of the hospital’s department of family medicine, kim miji of kyung hee university college of medicine’s department of biomedical science, and kim dae-hyun of harvard medical school.
intrinsic capacity, a concept emphasized by the world health organization (who), encompasses physical and mental abilities, including mobility, vitality, cognition, psychological well-being and sensory function.
these abilities begin to decline before difficulties with daily activities emerge. Early detection and management may help restore function. If decline goes unchecked, it can lead to frailty and a higher risk of death.
the researchers assessed 3,011 adults aged 70 to 84 nationwide who participated in the korean frailty and aging cohort study (kfacs) and followed them for about eight years.
they measured intrinsic capacity using three approaches: a brief self-report questionnaire, detailed clinical testing and a comprehensive score combining 17 assessments.
the questionnaire performed similarly to detailed testing in identifying people who needed help with daily activities and predicting long-term mortality risk. In both cases, higher intrinsic capacity scores were associated with a 17 to 35 percent lower risk of death during follow-up, depending on the assessment method.
detailed testing identified frailty better. Even so, all three methods showed clear differences in frailty according to intrinsic capacity.
no participants in the top 10 percent of intrinsic capacity scores were classified as frail. By contrast, among those in the bottom 10 percent, more than one in three—33 to 42 percent—were frail.
the researchers also developed reference curves that allow older adults to compare their intrinsic capacity with that of people of the same age and sex, much like growth charts for children, offering a practical benchmark for monitoring decline. Scores tended to be lower with age and among women.
“because we constructed the assessment using existing survey questions, applying it in clinical practice will require setting appropriate cutoff points for each setting and conducting further validation,” professor kim sun-young said. “The findings could support the use of questionnaire-based screening in national health checkups and community care for older adults.”
the study was published in the latest issue of the journal of nutrition, health and aging.
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| Short Story: Im Not a Racist, But. |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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By chris harris
trevor was the undisputed pub philosopher, holding court with his cronies and declaring himself an expert on everything. But when he unexpectedly falls for petunia, a mixed-race barmaid, his deeply ingrained prejudices threaten to expose the man behind the bluster.
“i’m not a racist, but…” trevor began his usual address to the gathering of his cronies around his favourite bar stool. The subject was ‘black ian’, although trevor had never wondered why ian needed identifying by the colour of his skin. Nor had he ever felt the need to explain why he wasn’t racist. As far as trevor was concerned, declaring himself not to be one absolved him of being one.
he was in his element, on his stool, holding forth on everything wrong with the world, who was responsible, and what ought to be done about it. His opinions were an intoxicating mixture of bigotry and cosy racism, and, of course, whatever was trending on tiktok; hence his preferred subject matter, the evils of immigration. His cronies listened with admiration, marvelling at his churchillian delivery, which, aligning with his ignorance, trevor mistook for being right about everything, which spurred him to delve deeper into the gutter of discrimination.
ian was relatively new to the town. He worked in one of the local restaurants, and on saturday afternoons he’d go to the king’s head and try to drink away the memories of being treated like shit by his manager and the head chef in the kitchen where he worked as a kitchen porter.
“i love you people,” he would say to anyone who would engage with him. Generally, anyone he befriended at the bar would listen because he was a lovely, friendly man and very clever. He would begin a conversation with anyone and anybody, a great listener, and after five or ten minutes would tell them how much he loved them. A graceful personality, but a lost soul who everybody knew and liked.
on this particular saturday afternoon in the king’s head in lewes, trevor sat on his own at the bar, downing the customary pints of stella, watching black ian, assembling his thoughts to preach later to his masses. He walked past ian, who said, “hello trev, i love you, man!”
“oh, alright, ian, nice to see you,” before going outside for a fag. It was these afternoons when he would watch ian and deliberate on whether he was racist or not, and happily reach the conclusion that he wasn’t, even though he was. After the brief exchange of friendliness, he puffed away on his fag and double-decided he most definitely was not racist.
trevor had been a regular in the king’s head for twenty years, and as the stella’s began to accelerate down his neck, his short-term affection for ian dissipated as the afternoon dragged on, sitting with his pint whilst on the other side of the bar ian merrily chatted away with everybody. Mind you, he was glad it wasn’t him talking to him but he still felt jealous of ian’s popularity.
dead on six, ian would always leave to go round his sister’s house for dinner, something they did every week. By then, trev’s mates would be starting to appear, having finished work or returned from football.
trev would then hold court. A group of eight of them, drawn together by their mutual love of stella, sky sports, talking shit, and womanising. All from the building trade, generally polite and friendly, if somewhat cocky and loud. They were weekend warriors and would leave at ten a.M. And get the train to brighton for clubbing, fighting and getting laid, in no particular order.
trevor would not join them; his place of relaxation was the king’s head, which he frequented every night and where he was surprisingly popular, the lovable rogue. The general ambience was a place of calm, and he respected that, and it was generally him who shooed his friends off when they began to get too loud.
“that black ian was in here again. Pissed off his face, annoying the customers. Now, i’m not a racist, but everyone knows black people can’t take their alcohol. So why do they continue serving him?” His mates nodded their heads at his wisdom.
racism ran through his family. When he was a child in croydon, his grandfather was always going on about “these bloody niggers ruining the country”, while during his impressionable teens, his parents would complain about “these bloody muslims and immigrants ruining the country”.
trevor was once a cowboy builder. Necessity now had him working cash in hand on sites around lewes for various contractors. His work was good, but when he ran his own business, he bodged everything for a quick buck, so eventually the supply of customers who hadn’t heard of his lazy and cheating work ethic gradually ran out, and he went bust.
he always resented being back on the building sites. As far as trevor was concerned, these days they were drenched with foreign workers who did have a proper work ethic. He was now expected to put in a hard day’s shift to keep up, or he’d risk losing the work. Going from a few hours bodging and lying a day to eight hours of hard graft was, as far as trevor was concerned, because of the immigrants. “I’m not a racist, but these immigrants are putting us all out of work.” His mates would ponder why trevor said what no politicians seemed to say: the truth.
trevor had always been too selfish and stuck in his ways to be involved in a grown-up relationship. His mates, with partners, would look embarrassed as he would condemn anyone involved in the drudgery of a committed partnership, and even his mates sometimes baulked at his misogyny. He’d skirmished with short-term relationships when he was younger, but now he settled for gratuitous sex with people on the internet; he had his stool at the bar, and meeting women would simply interfere with trevor’s outlook and way of doing things.
until petunia arrived. The new bar person.
aged thirty, beautiful, charming, kind, well-mannered, absolutely delightful to speak to, and mixed race. Trevor was enthralled by her; none of the other drinkers in the pub could fathom why she seemed so taken with him. It was a slow burner. Trevor knew he needed time to gradually persuade his cronies that nearly everything about her was actually white. She dressed like a white person, she spoke clean english, ate english food during her work breaks. “Come off it,” he’d reason, everything about her was white.
petunia had put herself through university and had come down to sussex to study for a master’s degree. As the weeks drifted by, his prejudiced guard began to drop as she flirted with him, and he unwittingly began to fall for her, to the degree that he spent most of his day thinking of her. He wrestled with her colour and his feelings towards her, fought his attraction and enjoyment of her company, but was smitten.
petunia basically just wanted to have sex and occasional company; she liked a bit of rough and was happy to bypass his lack of intelligence and ignore his bullshit and take him as a lover. Her degree was to take a year, so she had no time for anything more complicated. Trevor, on the other hand, pictured them living together.
trevor had absolutely no idea how to approach the subject of a date with a non-white woman, not knowing if there was a specific etiquette; his cronies could obviously offer no advice. So, he was completely taken aback when it was petunia who did the asking.
“well, maybe that’s just what these people do,” he later confided to his friends, playing the success down, but doing somersaults inside. The date was set for the following saturday. Or was it a date?
“let’s just meet in the pub. Nothing serious. Just two mates having a drink,” she said, playing his expectations down.
“yes, of course, just two mates.” Both were privately imagining something rather more.
during a shift on the thursday before their date, petunia spoke to jenny, another regular at the pub, and told her about saturday.
“you’re joking, aren’t you? He’s a bloody racist!”
“no, he’s not at all,” petunia replied, feeling quite insulted, as if she wouldn’t have known. “I’ve spoken to him loads of times. I’ve picked up on absolutely nothing. He’s a lovely man.”
“well, i tell you what. Like all these people, you just check his socials.”
petunia felt a twinge of treacherous disgust with herself as she brought up trevor wilby’s lewes facebook account. Most of it was just about west ham football club, family stuff, photographs with his mates and the usual facebook trite. A smile swept across petunia’s face as she went a few months back through trevor’s facebook posts, finding absolutely no evidence of racism whatsoever.
until october 22nd, three months earlier, about the same time she started at the pub, she reflected.
“i’m not a racist, but…” he’d written, before launching into a prejudiced rant about a black person involved in some newsworthy event. Her smile dissolved as she continued scrolling backwards. The further she went, the more his prejudicial, ugly and judgemental nature revealed itself. And it wasn’t just black people. It seemed that anyone who wasn’t white was a legitimate target for his opinions. Nobody, other than trev’s perfect inhabitants of a perfect world, was spared.
she’d worked incredibly hard to put together the money to take her master’s degree, to the extent that she held down three part-time jobs. She was highly intelligent, educated and independent. So how had she fallen for this bloke? The more she thought about it, the more disgust she felt, more so with herself. She always knew he was charming but a bit dim; how could she have fallen for him?
trevor was preparing for saturday evening with a sense of peculiar trepidation. He had a very high opinion of himself, but he was ten years older than her, and he knew he was punching way above his weight; still, he reasoned that her colour changed the dynamics and evened it out. He made a particular effort to look and smell good, cleaned his flat, changed the bedsheets and made sure the condoms were in the bedside drawer, ready for the inevitable conquering of petunia.
a group of black people sat near the restaurant area. He didn’t think anything of it until one of them waved at him. It was petunia. He went to the bar. A ping came through on his phone. “You did say we were just meeting as friends, so i’ve brought some of mine along as well. Hope you don’t mind.”
oh, my fucking christ, he thought. This is so embarrassing. How has this happened? Had he misread the signs? Do black people take their friends with them on a first date?
the pub was already full of his friends. They, and the other regulars, pretended not to watch him as he bought himself a pint, sensing a car crash. Everyone knew about the date. Trevor did not know whether to buy a big round; he wasn’t tight, but did you do that with black people? They all seemed to be drinking soft drinks. He forced a smile as he approached the table and sat down, feeling everyone glaring at him. He could hear chuckling, or he thought he could, as paranoia swept through him.
he just wanted to get up and leave. But then he’d look exactly what he was. A racist. As her friends nattered, he smiled along. Should he stay or should he go? He certainly wasn’t like his parents or grandparents. They were racists. He wasn’t. The stella went down at quick speed, and he lightened up and joined in the conversation, which now had turned to caribbean food. The only contribution he could think of was that he didn’t really understand what caribbean food was. The conversation moved to music, caribbean politics; it was almost as if he was being wound up.
petunia got up and began gathering the drinks orders. “What would you like, trevor? Your usual?”
“no, no, no, no. I’ve really got to go. Like i say, it was just a meeting of friends. I’m going to shift off home. Nice seeing you, petunia, and lovely meeting your friends.” He almost whispered this into her ear in embarrassment.
the words had come from nowhere. He hadn’t intended to leave, but once he’d started making his excuses, there was no going back. He felt dizzy with confusion, not wanting to look a twat to his mates, the regulars, or offend petunia and her friends. He realised he was now engaged in a desperate exercise in damage limitation, trying to extricate himself from the situation without looking like a complete fool.
“okay, trevor, we’re going off to the caribbean night at the elephant and castle. Are you sure you don’t want to come?” The voice gave it away; even trevor picked up that it was not a friendly invite. There was no caribbean night at the elephant and castle, and he had been set up by petunia.
as he left, he could pinpoint the sudden roar of laughter coming from petunia’s table, his humiliation complete.
trevor was a one-pub person. Like everything in his life, it was his way or no way. So he went to the off-licence by the station, bought himself some cans of stella and headed home. He’d only just started his first can when the texts came through from his mates telling him the offending group had left. He returned to the pub.
he took pride of place at the head of the table his friends were sitting at, eschewing his normal bar stool, and waxed lyrical. He had already racked his brains and come up with the perfect excuse for the debacle, not once considering why what had just happened had, why the woman who had been obsessed with had turned traitor. His cronies fell silent, waiting to hang on to his every word.
“i’m not a racist… but.”
i’m not a racist, but… the popular phrase of the pub philosopher
there are few more ominous ways to begin a sentence in the english language than “i’m not a racist, but…” you know what’s coming, why they bother with the first five words, words designed to establish someone’s innocence, followed by a sixth that demolishes the entire defence.
the but is doing an enormous amount of work. The but introduces the contradiction; the offensive racism follows. The but is invariably a slant on some form of prejudice or racism that the but plays down and softens the racism, in the eyes of the speaker.
we’ve all encountered it. The number of times i have met someone, especially when the guard is down in a pub, at a party, the footie, but even at work or on the bus or train. Someone gets talking to you. They are friendly, they are helping you innocuously pass the day in conversation. But then once they feel they have broken the ice and there is a connection, passing the time of day soon evolves into opinion and thereafter ‘i’m not a racist, but’ comes out. That is when it is time to make the excuses and leave.
of course, the speaker is utterly convinced that the introductory declaration has somehow protected them from accusations of prejudice, but as it is habitual does not seem to grasp the excuse does not work,
where did it come from?
unlike many traditional english expressions, there doesn’t appear to be a single identifiable origin for “i’m not a racist, but…”
nobody seems to have invented it. There was no famous speech, literary masterpiece or television programme that introduced it to the nation. It appears to have evolved naturally as attitudes towards openly expressed racism changed.
as overt racism became increasingly unacceptable in polite society, people who continued to hold prejudiced opinions found themselves needing a way of expressing them without appearing prejudiced. And what better method than simply announcing that they weren’t?
the expression was sufficiently established to become a subject of academic research during the late twentieth century. In 2000, sociologists eduardo bonilla-silva and tyrone forman published research examining how white american college students could reject the label of racist while expressing views that reflected racial prejudice.
the researchers were examining something that most regular pubgoers had probably encountered without ever considering it worthy of academic investigation. The remarkable ability of human beings to contradict themselves within a single sentence.
the wonderful world of the conversational disclaimer
of course, racism doesn’t have a monopoly on this particular linguistic trick. The english language is full of expressions designed to soften the blow of whatever unpleasantness is about to follow.
“i’m not being funny, but…” almost invariably followed by something that isn’t remotely funny.
“with all due respect…” a useful warning that the speaker is about to demonstrate considerably less respect than the occasion probably warrants.
“no offence, but…” possibly the most spectacularly unsuccessful disclaimer in everyday conversation. It suggests that the speaker has identified something offensive, decided to say it anyway and transferred responsibility for the consequences to the unfortunate recipient.
“i’m not one to gossip, but…” usually delivered by someone who has been gossiping enthusiastically for the previous forty-five minutes and has no intention of stopping.
then there’s my particular favourite. “I’m not being rude, but…” here it comes….!
these expressions all perform roughly the same function. They attempt to establish the speaker’s good intentions before those intentions are immediately called into question.
but there’s an important difference. Being rude, gossiping or making an inappropriate joke is not equivalent to racism. The consequences of racial prejudice can be considerably more serious. Which makes the casual familiarity of the expression all the more interesting.
the pub philosopher
every pub seems to have had at least one resident authority on absolutely everything. In my story, see link below, i base the trevor character on a pub philosopher in my local pub in lewes. Like many a ‘pub philosopher ’, he was quite ignorant but fuelled with alcohol had no filter to contain his prejudice and ignorance.
the economy, immigration, international relations, policing, the national health service and the england football team’s tactical shortcomings. Nothing was beyond his expertise.
he had black friends and played football with a lot of black people, he was affable, so he felt that made him immune from being racist. But they were simply regarded as exceptions to his otherwise firmly established opinions, and his friendship with them exempted him from being the racist he was, justifying his use of the phrase. The contradiction never troubled him.
do people actually believe it?
i think this is the most fascinating question. Are people who use the expression always deliberately disguising their prejudices, or do they genuinely believe that they aren’t racist? Presumably, there are examples of both. I’ve never hung around long enough to find out.
you can challenge people, but especially these days with people brainwashed by social media, it is pointless; you just get the denial that they are not racist. You can point out their opinion is factually racist, but let’s be honest for many a racist or closet racist, reasonable dialogue can be challenging.
some people understand perfectly well that what they’re about to say will be offensive and use the introduction as a convenient defence. Others may genuinely fail to recognise the prejudice in their own opinions. They can condemn racism while simultaneously expressing racist attitudes.
the six words that give the game away
what makes this expression so enduring is that it reveals something about the way people think. Most of us want to regard ourselves as decent, fair-minded individuals. Few people enjoy being accused of prejudice. But there’s a considerable difference between believing ourselves to be fair-minded and examining whether our opinions actually support that belief, that’s where the little word but becomes so revealing.
it provides a glimpse of the contradiction between how somebody wishes to be perceived and what they may actually believe. Of course, not every sentence beginning this way is necessarily followed by something racist. Context matters, and the expression can be used ironically or to challenge prejudice itself.
but its reputation is thoroughly established. It’s become one of those rare conversational introductions where the listener can often predict the direction of the argument before the speaker has even begun; as such, the phrase is useful because, even before the but kicks in, you know it is time to get away!
make both our days by buying a copy of my book!
welcome to denham, a fictitious sussex village where behind respectable doors, well-tended gardens and familiar faces, things have a habit of going badly wrong.
obsession, ambition, deception, jealousy and petty rivalry run through this collection of tragi-comical and satirical short stories. From poltergeists and lottery winners to cricket club feuds and environmental disasters, ordinary people embark on discovering just how quickly an ordinary life can unravel into an extraordinary mess.
darkly funny, occasionally poignant and populated by characters who are rarely quite what they seem, these stories explore the peculiarities of middle england, and the uncomfortable territory between respectability and ruin. |
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| NY AG taps former Diddy prosecutor to lead Cornell sexual assault probe | | cent |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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Ny ag taps former diddy prosecutor to lead cornell sexual assault probe thao nguyen, usa today nov 4, 2026 28 mins ago facebook twitter whatsapp linkedin sms email print copy article link save facebook twitter whatsapp linkedin sms email print copy article link save if you or someone you know has experienced sexual violence, rainn’s national sexual assault hotline offers free, confidential, 24/7 support to survivors and their loved ones in english and spanish at 800.656.Hope (4673) and hotline.Rainn.Org and en español rainn.Org/es.New york attorney general letitia james has appointed the former federal prosecutor who oversaw the prosecution of sean “diddy” combs to lead a criminal investigation into allegations that a woman was sexually assaulted at a cornell university fraternity house in 2024.James announced nov. 4 that jacqueline kelly will serve as outside counsel for the investigation, leading a team of attorneys and staff from the attorney generals office and boies schiller flexner. Kelly was the first chief of the civil rights unit in the criminal division of the u.S. Attorneys office for the southern district of new york and is now a partner at boies schiller flexner. Jacqueline kelly is a seasoned prosecutor who has overseen numerous cases from investigation through trial, james, who was elected to a third term as attorney general on nov. 3, said in a statement. With her criminal legal expertise, commitment to public service, and judicial experience, i am confident that she will lead a fair and comprehensive investigation.The appointment follows an executive order signed oct. 1 by gov. Kathy hochul designating james as special prosecutor to reopen the criminal investigation into the allegations. Meanwhile, a committee of cornells board of trustees has appointed former u.S. Deputy attorney general sally yates to review the universitys response to sexual assault claims.The case gained renewed attention in september when the woman at the center of the allegations filed a lawsuit against cornell, accusing the school of mishandling its response to her complaint. The woman, identified in court filings as jane doe, alleges that she was drugged and gang-raped by seven members of the school’s chi phi fraternity in october 2024.Attorneys for the fraternity members named in the lawsuit have denied the allegations. While cornell expelled or disciplined several students connected to the incident, no criminal charges have been filed.Who is jacqueline kelly?Kelly joined boies schiller flexner as a partner in 2025 after serving as a federal prosecutor in manhattan. As the first chief of the civil rights unit in the criminal division, she oversaw investigations involving official misconduct, sexual exploitation and abuse, hate crimes and voting rights violations.Before working as a federal prosecutor, kelly clerked for u.S. District judges ronnie abrams in new york and kevin mcnulty in new jersey. She is a graduate of cornell university and columbia law school.More recently, kelly oversaw the criminal case against rapper and music mogul sean diddy combs, who was accused of sex trafficking. Combs is serving a four-year prison âsentence after being convicted on prostitution charges, but acquitted of the more serious sex trafficking charges he faced that could have landed him in prison âfor life.Kelly said she would work with the new york attorney general’s office to conduct a fair and comprehensive investigation. I thank attorney general james for entrusting me to lead this investigation with her office, kelly said in a statement. All new yorkers deserve a fair and thorough inquiry into the facts of this case. I look forward to lending my years of experience as a federal prosecutor to the office of the attorney general as we examine all available evidence.According to the attorney general’s office, kelly’s team will gather and analyze evidence, review prior investigative records and reports, and conduct witness interviews. The team will report directly to the attorney general’s office.Cornell university faces criticism over responsethe allegations have drawn renewed attention to sexual assault cases involving college fraternities and questions about how universities respond to reports of sexual violence. At cornell, the lawsuit has prompted criticism of the schools handling of the case and calls from students, alumni, and advocates for greater transparency.Cornells faculty senate is currently moving forward with a vote of no confidence against the university administration. About 135 members of the governing body can vote on the non-binding resolution from oct. 30 until nov. 6, according to the student newspaper the cornell daily sun.The faculty senate has no confidence in the ability of the central administration to effectively address the ongoing crisis of sexual assault at cornell university, the resolution states.Cornell president michael kotlikoff called the faculty discussion and debate an important component of cornell’s shared governance and said the university had taken measures including adding staff to its civil rights office, expanding sexual assault prevention education, and hiring staff focused on victim advocacy.We remain committed to listening, learning, and partnering with the cornell community to create real cultural change and build a safer cornell, kotlikoff said in a statement.Contributing: reutersthis article originally appeared on usa today: ny ag taps former diddy prosecutor to lead cornell sexual assault probereporting by thao nguyen, usa today / usa todayusa today network via reuters connect facebook twitter whatsapp linkedin sms email print copy article link save on air currently in bend 45° cloudy54° / 28° 11 pm 44° 12 am 42° 1 am 41° 2 am 38° 3 am 37° wednesday p.M. Forecast - nov. 4 updated 6 hrs ago trending articlessorry, there are no recent results for popular articles. Videossorry, there are no recent results for popular videos. Events |
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| NY AG taps former Diddy prosecutor to lead Cornell sexual assault probe |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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If you or someone you know has experienced sexual violence, rainns national sexual assault hotline offers free, confidential, 24/7 support to survivors and their loved ones in english and spanish at 800.656.Hope (4673) and hotline.Rainn.Org and en español rainn.Org/es .
new york attorney general letitia james has appointed the former federal prosecutor who oversaw the prosecution of sean diddy combs to lead a criminal investigation into allegations that a woman was sexually assaulted at a cornell university fraternity house in 2024.
james announced nov. 4 that jacqueline kelly will serve as outside counsel for the investigation , leading a team of attorneys and staff from the attorney generals office and boies schiller flexner. Kelly was the first chief of the civil rights unit in the criminal division of the u.S. Attorneys office for the southern district of new york and is now a partner at boies schiller flexner.
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jacqueline kelly is a seasoned prosecutor who has overseen numerous cases from investigation through trial, james, who was elected to a third term as attorney general on nov. 3, said in a statement . With her criminal legal expertise, commitment to public service, and judicial experience, i am confident that she will lead a fair and comprehensive investigation.
the appointment follows an executive order signed oct. 1 by gov. Kathy hochul designating james as special prosecutor to reopen the criminal investigation into the allegations. Meanwhile, a committee of cornells board of trustees has appointed former u.S. Deputy attorney general sally yates to review the universitys response to sexual assault claims.
the case gained renewed attention in september when the woman at the center of the allegations filed a lawsuit against cornell , accusing the school of mishandling its response to her complaint. The woman, identified in court filings as jane doe , alleges that she was drugged and gang-raped by seven members of the schools chi phi fraternity in october 2024.
attorneys for the fraternity members named in the lawsuit have denied the allegations. While cornell expelled or disciplined several students connected to the incident, no criminal charges have been filed.
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. Gov. Kathy hochul has appointed attorney general letita james as a special prosecutor to examine the schools initial investigation into the incident. The student, who is only being identified as jane doe, has alleged she was gang-raped inside the chi phi frat house in 2024. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. Gov. Kathy hochul has appointed attorney general letita james as a special prosecutor to examine the schools initial investigation into the incident. The student, who is only being identified as jane doe, has alleged she was gang-raped inside the chi phi frat house in 2024. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. (Spencer platt, getty images)
hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. Gov. Kathy hochul has appointed attorney general letita james as a special prosecutor to examine the schools initial investigation into the incident. The student, who is only being identified as jane doe, has alleged she was gang-raped inside the chi phi frat house in 2024. (Spencer platt, getty images)
members of saps (saexual assault prevention and safety), a students organization at cornell university, hand out purple ribbons oct. 5, 2026 before a rally where students were planning to express grievances against the school administration in how the school handles sexual assault cases. (Seth harrison, usa today network)
cornell students rally to demand reform in sexual assault policies
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hundreds of cornell students participate in a rally against the universitys actions after a student was sexually assaulted at a campus fraternity in 2024, on oct. 5, 2026 in ithaca, new york. Gov. Kathy hochul has appointed attorney general letita james as a special prosecutor to examine the schools initial investigation into the incident. The student, who is only being identified as jane doe, has alleged she was gang-raped inside the chi phi frat house in 2024. (Spencer platt, getty images)
who is jacqueline kelly?
kelly joined boies schiller flexner as a partner in 2025 after serving as a federal prosecutor in manhattan. As the first chief of the civil rights unit in the criminal division, she oversaw investigations involving official misconduct, sexual exploitation and abuse, hate crimes and voting rights violations.
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before working as a federal prosecutor, kelly clerked for u.S. District judges ronnie abrams in new york and kevin mcnulty in new jersey. She is a graduate of cornell university and columbia law school.
more recently, kelly oversaw the criminal case against rapper and music mogul sean diddy combs , who was accused of sex trafficking. Combs is serving a four-year prison ?Sentence after being convicted on prostitution charges, but acquitted of the more serious sex trafficking charges he faced that could have landed him in prison ?For life.
kelly said she would work with the new york attorney generals office to conduct a fair and comprehensive investigation.
i thank attorney general james for entrusting me to lead this investigation with her office, kelly said in a statement . All new yorkers deserve a fair and thorough inquiry into the facts of this case. I look forward to lending my years of experience as a federal prosecutor to the office of the attorney general as we examine all available evidence.
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according to the attorney generals office, kellys team will gather and analyze evidence, review prior investigative records and reports, and conduct witness interviews. The team will report directly to the attorney generals office.
i was brutalized: cornell rape allegations, investigation, lawsuit
cornell university faces criticism over response
the allegations have drawn renewed attention to sexual assault cases involving college fraternities and questions about how universities respond to reports of sexual violence. At cornell, the lawsuit has prompted criticism of the schools handling of the case and calls from students, alumni, and advocates for greater transparency.
cornells faculty senate is currently moving forward with a vote of no confidence against the university administration. About 135 members of the governing body can vote on the non-binding resolution from oct. 30 until nov. 6, according to the student newspaper the cornell daily sun .
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the faculty senate has no confidence in the ability of the central administration to effectively address the ongoing crisis of sexual assault at cornell university, the resolution states.
cornell president michael kotlikoff called the faculty discussion and debate an important component of cornells shared governance and said the university had taken measures including adding staff to its civil rights office, expanding sexual assault prevention education, and hiring staff focused on victim advocacy.
we remain committed to listening, learning, and partnering with the cornell community to create real cultural change and build a safer cornell, kotlikoff said in a statement.
contributing: reuters
this article originally appeared on usa today: ny ag taps former diddy prosecutor to lead cornell sexual assault probe |
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| Digital Marketing Intern, Retail - Spring 2027 - Pacers Sports & Entertainment | |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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Digital marketing intern, retail - spring 2027
pacers sports & entertainment - intern
indianapolis, in
digital marketing · retail marketing · internship
1
1
hours ago
in order to be considered for this role, after clicking apply now above and being redirected, you must fully complete the application process on the follow-up screen.
internship term: spring 2027 (january - may)
internship location: on-site in indianapolis, in
anticipated time commitment: approximately 25 - 30 hours per week
internship location: on-site in indianapolis, in
anticipated time commitment: approximately 25 - 30 hours per week
the digital retail intern will assist in the digital retail marketing ideation and content creation for both the pacers team store and fever team store brands.
essential duties and responsibilities:
- assist with maintenance of pacers team store and fever team store website and social channels and coverage of games (including nights and weekends), inclusive of capturing and editing photo and video content.
- assist in the copywriting of social, email and website content.
- edit graphics and photos for use on site, social and video.
- upload and help maintain fever and pacers shopify web stores.
- curate and concept on-model photoshoots for team store content.
- create email marketing campaigns.
- shoot social-style video with high-end cameras and smartphones.
- assist in brainstorming and creating content plans.
- other duties and responsibilities as assigned.
required qualifications:
- enrolled in college or university program as a junior, senior, or graduate student.
- strong writing skills.
- highly encouraged: camera & photography experience, preferably of the sony brand
- experience / knowledge regarding creating instagram reels
- experience in a retail setting or fashion major.
- familiarity with adobe photoshop or premier required, both a plus.
- familiarity with shopify.
- ability to edit video and photo on their phone.
- ability to work three to four days in office per week, plus events during evenings and weekends.
preferred qualifications:
- able to work on-site from 9am-5pm or 10am-4pm 3 days per week.
to perform this job successfully, an individual must be able to perform each duty satisfactorily. The requirements listed above are representative of the knowledge, skill and/or ability required. Reasonable accommodations may be made to enable individuals with disabilities to perform the essential functions.
reasoning ability:
ability to define problems, collect data, establish facts and draw valid conclusions. Ability to interpret directions and technical diagrams.
problem solving requirements:
employee must deal with various internal and external constituents to solve problems and deliver projects on time with accuracy, professionalism and with outstanding customer service.
physical and environmental demands:
the physical demands and work environment characteristics described here are representative of those that must be met by an employee to successfully perform the essential functions of this job. Reasonable accommodations may be made to enable individuals with disabilities to perform the essential functions.
while performing the duties of this job, the employee is regularly required to sit, stand, walk, use a computer, use a telephone, speak, hear, and write.
while performing the duties of this job, the noise level in the office work environment is usually moderate and the noise level in the fieldhouse / game environment is usually loud. The stress level may become high during certain times of the year.
we are an equal opportunity employer, and all qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability status, protected veteran status, or any other characteristic protected by law. |
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| Looking Forward to Increased Private Lending in Graduate Education? | American E |
| Posted on Thursday, November 05 @ 00:03:48 PST (2 reads) | |
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Key points
- the one big beautiful bill act ends graduate plus loans for new borrowers and caps federal graduate borrowing. Once fully phased in, the caps will bind for as many as half a million graduate students a year—over one-third of federal graduate borrowers—and cap $8 billion to $10 billion in annual loans. The law’s architects expect private lenders to fill part of this gap, steering credit toward programs that pay off.
- private lenders, however, mostly underwrite on backward-looking criteria: credit scores, current income, and cosigners. About 37 percent of borrowers over the new caps have subprime or no credit scores. Without a cosigner, many may be shut out even from high-return programs— which account for 84 percent of the capped loan volume that has earnings data—while students with good credit or a cosigner will still be able to borrow for low-return ones.
- while lenders could instead use forward-looking criteria that allocate credit based on expected earnings, data gaps and concerns over fair-lending laws limit that approach. Few data exist on long-run earnings or graduate completion, and lenders fear that eligibility criteria tied to school or program outcomes could bring disparate impact liability under the equal credit opportunity act (ecoa).
- federal policymakers could ease the transition by building a secure, linked repository of loan application, credit bureau, and census bureau earnings data. With those data in place, congress could offer lenders a time-limited ecoa safe harbor to test forward-looking underwriting models under government monitoring for disparate impact.
introduction
the new federal loan limits established by the one big beautiful bill act (obbba) promise a dramatic shift in how graduate and professional students finance their advanced study.1 federal data on borrowing patterns from 2019–20 suggest that as many as a half million graduate students each year (over one-third of the 1.4 million who borrow federal loans in a typical year) will have their access to loans from the federal government reduced, sending many of them to private lenders to help pay for their education.2
federal graduate plus (grad plus) loans have allowed students to borrow up to the full cost of attendance for any graduate program. For the architects of obbba, replacing that near-entitlement with private-lender underwriting—and therefore rationing access to credit—was the point. The hope is that market forces will encourage credit to concentrate in programs where earnings outcomes justify the amounts being borrowed—creating more market accountability for low-performing and overpriced programs.
while this vision for a future of increased private-sector involvement in student loans may seem intuitive, it reads as fanciful against the past and present of private education lending. Private lenders have not traditionally made lending decisions based on estimates of students’ future earnings according to their intended program of study or the institution they plan to attend. Underwriting decisions—whether students get loans, how much, and at what price—tend to be based instead on “backward-looking” information such as credit scores, current income, and a cosigner’s creditworthiness.
there are exceptions, and a growing number of lenders now offer products based on estimates of students’ future earnings. But these products remain a small share of the market, and important constraints may continue to limit the role of such “forward-looking” underwriting—some technical, relating to data availability, and some legal, relating to fair-lending compliance risk. This report offers an overview of these issues and concludes with a discussion of how different stakeholders might facilitate a more successful transition to a post–grad plus world.
background on federal and private lending for graduate study
the federal government has been the predominant source of credit for education loans for the past half century—and not by a close margin. In the 2023–24 academic year, only about 13 percent of all education loans were nonfederal loans; at the graduate level, the share was even lower, at 3 percent.3 the share of loan volume from the private sector has changed over time, rising for undergraduate and graduate loans from the mid-1990s until the great recession in 2008, peaking at about 30 percent for undergraduate loans in 2007–08 and 15 percent for graduate loans in 2005–06.4
that increase in private lending may have been helped to varying degrees by a growing securitization market and a 2005 change in the law that made private student loans widely non-dischargeable in bankruptcy, changes that shifted risk away from lenders. Private lending receded rapidly in the wake of the great recession, as credit standards became much more conservative in the face of severe losses from soaring post-recession loan defaults.5
for graduate loans, the decline in private lending started earlier due to the introduction of the federal grad plus loan program, as many students appeared to substitute federal loans for private borrowing.6 recent analyses suggest that if overall graduate borrowing levels stay the same after the reduction in federal credit due to obbba’s graduate loan limits, the private share of loan volume would need to grow to nearly one-third, about double its previous peak in 2005–06.7 that would mean private volume rising by about $8–$10 billion from about $3 billion in annual volume at present.
the process of underwriting—the procedures lenders use to assess whether to loan to a student or parent, how much, and on what terms—is a key to understanding the past trends in private lending and how the sector will respond to the new demand for private credit. Lenders make money by charging borrowers interest and origination or other fees that exceed the lenders’ own borrowing and operating costs, and lenders lose money to the extent their loans go unrepaid. Lenders generally charge higher interest rates to borrowers who are more likely to default (i.E., Not repay their loans) so that the interest income from similar borrowers who do pay offsets losses from those who do not. Riskier borrowers may also be offered less credit or denied a loan. The underwriter’s key task is thus to accurately assess the risk that a borrower defaults.
in federal student loan programs, there is virtually no underwriting. Under the federal grad plus loan program, which ended for new borrowers on july 1, 2026, graduate students could effectively borrow up to the full cost of attendance set by colleges if they had no “adverse credit history.” This meant no debt over $2,085 in delinquency at the time of the credit check or subject to charge-off or collection actions in the previous two years. It also meant no recent defaults, bankruptcies, or other severe events over the previous five years.8
notably, the adverse credit check did not involve assessing the borrower’s ability to repay a loan beyond whether the borrower had recent trouble with repayment. Thus, for example, a borrower with no credit history at all would qualify to borrow as much as they needed to pay their program’s full cost without further consideration for their ability to repay.
there is no credit check requirement for direct unsubsidized loans for graduate students (often called stafford loans): students may borrow up to the loan limits established by congress.
the private student loan market operates very differently from federal programs by using underwriting to ration credit to only those expected to be able to repay their loans. Student loans differ from some other credit products in ways that make this process challenging. First, student loans are generally unsecured, meaning a lender cannot obtain some residual claim to the asset being financed (i.E., The learning students gain during their schooling) that can be used to defray their losses if the loan is not repaid. But student loans differ from other unsecured consumer credit products in that the consequence, if not the main purpose, of the loan is often to enable the borrower to gain knowledge and skills that will increase their capacity to repay the loan in the future.
student loans differ from, say, credit card loans, where lenders can reasonably assume borrowers’ future income will resemble what they earn at the time they apply for the loan. For credit card loans, lenders use backward-looking criteria, such as a borrower’s current income and credit history, to assess their ability to repay. In the case of student loans, however, income is likely to be much lower during school compared with what a student can be expected to earn after completing a graduate program.
for example, recent research finds that completing graduate programs increases earnings by an average of 17 percent. Doctor of medicine (md) degree-holders tend to increase their earnings by about 110 percent, and juris doctor (jd) degree-holders increase their earnings by an average of 59 percent.9 with education loans, forward-looking estimates of borrowers’ future income and ability to repay are likely to be important predictors of loan repayment.10
in practice, most private student lenders appear to rely heavily on backward-looking criteria in their underwriting. A recent survey of 34 private and state-affiliated lenders’ underwriting criteria (for undergraduate loans) found that lenders used some combination of credit score, (current) income, and debt-to-income requirements as an initial eligibility screen for applicants.11 all lenders reported a minimum credit score threshold, and a majority reported additional requirements involving either a minimum income level or maximum debt-to-income ratio.
more telling is that in recent years most private education loans have required a creditworthy cosigner. A january 2026 industry report estimated that 97 percent of undergraduate and 74 percent of graduate private loans (by originated volume) had cosigners.12 this means most loans are being offered based on the creditworthiness of parents or other family members, rather than the future earnings potential of the student investing in education. Notably, the private graduate lending market has trended increasingly toward requiring a cosigner—the share of cosigned loans has increased by nearly 20 percentage points since 2015.13 in this sense, most private graduate educational loans are not “student loans” with returns depending on postgraduate student outcomes. Instead, these loans hinge on the cosigner’s (usually a parent’s) ability to repay the loan based on their current financial circumstances.
while they account for a small share of the market, there are lenders that specialize in loans using forward-looking criteria and lenders with specific loan products relying on such criteria. The most prominent of these specialized lenders include ascent funding, funding u, meritize, and mpower financing. These lenders and their loan products use information to predict borrowers’ future earnings and repayment outcomes in their underwriting processes.
because underwriting details are proprietary, it is impossible to analyze exactly how particular data elements are or are not used. However, commonly referenced underwriting elements include measures of academic performance (e.G., Gpa, grade level, and credits accumulated as proxies for the likelihood of completion). Other common underwriting elements include the student’s school and the degree program, likely linked to the cost of attendance and associated earnings potential. At present, most forward-looking underwriting activity appears to be concentrated at the undergraduate level, though the space is changing rapidly.
the stakes of underwriting in a post–grad plus landscape
the new obbba loan limits will be binding for nearly a half million students each year.14 for many, the ability to pursue graduate education will hinge on how private lenders underwrite their loans.
figure 1 illustrates how lenders’ use of backward- and forward-looking criteria may affect which students can secure loans in the private sector.15 it organizes borrowers into four categories based on how they would rate on criteria looking backward (e.G., The maximum credit score of the borrower and cosigner) and forward (e.G., The projected postgraduation earnings).
students in the left column of figure 1 have strong backward-looking signals—meaning they or their cosigner have a strong credit score and meet income requirements—while those in the right column have poor or no credit score and no cosigner. The top and bottom rows divide these groups further into those with high (top) or low (bottom) expected future earnings, driven in part (but not solely) by their institution and planned field of study.
much of the impetus for loan limits was a sense that a lack of underwriting in federal loan programs allowed too many students to enroll in graduate programs in the bottom row, where students’ prospects of earning enough to repay their loans are dim. Infamous examples include master’s degrees in film studies and social work from several elite universities.16 however, there are many programs with cumulative borrowing levels of program graduates exceeding annual salaries shortly after graduation, sometimes several times over.17 proponents of loan limits often argue that private-sector involvement will steer more students toward education programs in the top row, where financial returns are sufficient to repay their loans—implicitly assuming that lenders will base credit decisions on forward-looking criteria.
opponents of loan limits argue that private lenders won’t lend to students with no or poor credit or those who lack access to a creditworthy cosigner. If they rely primarily on backward-looking signals, private lenders will tend not to lend to borrowers in the right column.
figure 1 highlights a few important concerns about private-sector involvement in graduate education financing. The largest concern to state and federal policymakers should be that borrowers in the top-right quadrant—students attending high-return programs who lack an adequate credit history to secure credit—lack access to private loans and cannot pursue graduate study. Denying such students the opportunity for valuable training harms the economy and exacerbates inequality. Serving these students well requires private lenders that better use forward-looking underwriting or a return of government credit provision.
a further concern is that low-earning programs in the bottom row include many socially valuable programs, where the full social returns of graduates’ work may be meaningfully under-captured by their labor market earnings. Social work, mental health programs, early childhood education, and arts programs are examples. While such education programs might be better financed through grants instead of requiring students to take on debts that strain their financial health, policymakers may worry nonetheless that absent such policy innovation the private market will inefficiently under-finance students’ investments in those fields of study.
finally, proponents of the notion that more private-sector involvement in rationing credit will nudge graduate education choices toward higher-return programs often overlook students in the bottom-left quadrant. Students applying for loans to enroll in programs with low earnings outcomes will likely receive them, so long as either they or their cosigner have good credit. As noted earlier, there may be some programs where we view that as socially productive, but generally this suggests that the private market may have a limited effect on guiding students to higher-return graduate programs. Rather, the pressure to study at higher-paying or lower-cost programs will be felt only for those students in the right column—differentially lower-income students who will not qualify for loans based on backward-looking signals—creating inequality in the opportunity to study less remunerative fields.
it is difficult to precisely gauge how many students fall into the various quadrants of figure 1, but some evidence exists. One coarse way to assess what share of students may be in the figure’s top versus bottom rows—that is, what fraction of students are pursuing programs where their earnings are likely sufficient to make loan repayment affordable—is to use the debt-to-earnings (dte) metric applied to programs in the gainful employment rule.18
the gainful employment rule defined debt as unaffordable if graduates have to devote more than 20 percent of their discretionary earnings after graduation to servicing their annual debt payments. Discretionary earnings meant their earnings minus an amount for necessary expenses, set at 150 percent of the federal poverty level (or about $22,000 in 2023). Table 1 shows how much of the loan volume capped by the obbba limits is in programs with different levels of this measure of debt affordability, based on typical graduates’ total borrowing and earnings outcomes.
of the programs that can be matched with information about dte ratios (covering 64.1 percent of loan volume),19 about 84.2 percent goes to students in programs with an acceptable dte of 20 percent or less.20 this leaves about 15.8 percent of capped volume in programs with debt payments that are unaffordable based on typical students’ future (early-career) earnings.
a recent report linking credit panel data to program attendance data from the national student clearinghouse sheds light on the share of graduate students with backward-looking criteria sufficient to obtain private loans. The report found that among all federal graduate borrowers, measured just before beginning their studies, about 5 percent had no credit score, 35 percent had subprime credit (below 670), 39 percent had scores between 670 and 740, and 21 percent had scores that were above 740. Among graduate students with federal borrowing over the obbba limits, approximately 37 percent had either subprime credit scores (below 670) or insufficient credit history to be scored.21 many private lenders report being unwilling to make loans to students with credit scores below that level, so this provides a first look at the share of students affected by the new limits who are likely to be in the right column of figure 1 and struggle to obtain a private loan unless they have access to a creditworthy cosigner.22
broadly, the two pieces of evidence above suggest that based on forward-looking signals, a healthy majority of capped loan volume may be concentrated in programs with good returns (i.E., In the top row of figure 1), though the data are clearly incomplete. At the same time, over one-third of borrowers affected by caps may be unlikely to qualify for a loan based on backward-looking underwriting criteria. This suggests that many students—disproportionately lower-income, minority, and younger students—could fail to secure credit to attend high-return graduate programs unless the private market extends credit to them based on forward-looking signals.
will forward-looking underwriting become more common?
the financial case seems strong for private lenders to extend loans to students based on their predicted future outcomes. Highly selective medical and law schools are extreme examples where the likelihood that students do not graduate and earn enough to pay their loans seems very low. It’s difficult to imagine that lending to students in such programs, even with no or weak credit, would not be profitable. Nevertheless, in the past, lenders have reported both technical and legal challenges that may continue to hinder them from doing so at scale.23
the first challenge is the availability of data to properly assess students’ future repayment behavior. Assessing the risk that borrowers will not repay a loan involves quantifying how different borrower, loan, school, and program characteristics all affect the amount a borrower is likely to repay. This exercise requires assembling such information for large numbers of borrowers to estimate underwriting models.
some of this information already exists, such as loan-level performance information from credit agencies linking borrowers’ credit history to repayment and default outcomes. This is the workhorse data already used for developing most backward-looking underwriting models. To facilitate more forward-looking underwriting models, this information can further be linked to information on the schools and programs that student borrowers attend as well—for example, by matching individual records to their school and program enrollment and credential awards from the national student clearinghouse.
there has been dramatic progress on this front in the past 10 years, as new data on specific college graduate programs offer more information than ever to help predict students’ future earnings and repayment behavior. For example, data on the typical graduate’s earnings for individual fields of study at particular colleges are being produced through the college scorecard up to five years after graduation. A new earnings-based accountability framework that took effect in july 2026 will likely improve the consistency and availability of future data.24
however, key data elements remain hard to access. Information about earnings over a longer horizon is not broadly available. For some programs, like medicine and osteopathy, estimating earnings trajectories beyond a five- or even 10-year time horizon is critical. This is because borrowers’ ability to repay loans over several hundred thousand dollars starts to materialize only after completing their residency, five years after graduating from medical school.
similarly, broad information about graduate program completion rates does not exist, and recent research has shown that non-completion is surprisingly common.25 earnings for graduate programs representing about one-third of total annual disbursements are not available at all—primarily because these borrowers are in programs that graduate relatively few people, so privacy rules prevent the government from disclosing earnings statistics. More broadly, data that allow detailed individual-level borrower and program characteristics to be matched to predict individual earnings outcomes and repayment behavior are largely unavailable. This makes the development of forward-looking underwriting models tailored to graduate student lending a challenge.
data availability presents a technical hurdle to model development. But lenders and their trade associations more often point to a legal obstacle: the risk of disparate impact liability under the equal credit opportunity act.
future earnings and other borrower outcomes (e.G., Default or repayment rates) correlate with protected characteristics like race and gender. This raises concerns among lenders about how to comply with laws seeking to prevent a disparate impact on those protected groups in lending practices while expanding access to valuable graduate education programs for borrowers who might not qualify based on their credit history.26 in the early 2000s, lenders commonly used school cohort default rates (cdrs) in their underwriting, but a 2012 consumer financial protection bureau report flagged this practice as potentially illegal:
private student lenders’ use of cdr at very low default levels may present fair lending concerns because . . . Racial and ethnic minority students are disproportionately concentrated in schools with higher cdrs. Accordingly, use of cdr to determine loan eligibility, underwriting, and pricing may have a disparate impact on minority students by reducing their access to credit and requiring those minority students who meet the lenders’ eligibility thresholds to pay higher rates than are otherwise available to similarly creditworthy non-hispanic white students at schools with lower cdrs.27
recent precedent—for instance, a justice department settlement against a bank’s student loan refinancing program that used colleges’ cdrs in determining eligibility for its products28—has shown that regulators are willing to act on such concerns, which heightens private lenders’ risk aversion to experimentation. In part reflecting such concerns, large private lenders seem reluctant to use any institution- or program-specific criteria in eligibility and underwriting decisions.29
even as the trump administration has walked away from enforcing disparate impact rules,30 those laws and precedents remain on the books, and lenders remain wary about possible future enforcement actions. Most larger private lenders have not attempted to underwrite on individualized predictions of students’ future earnings. They have instead created loan products open to students pursuing particular degrees like jds and mds, hoping to elide concerns about race and gender sorting into particular institutions.
figure 2 shows how the legal constraints can amplify the technical challenges. For three different types of graduate credentials, the dots show the median earnings of program graduates across all the programs for which there are published data from the college scorecard. Superimposed in light blue is the range between the 25th and 75th percentile of earnings for all graduates of any program, with the national median marked with a dashed orange line.
figure 2 makes several things clear. First, there are dramatic differences in earnings outcomes across fields of study, so there are clear signals about graduates’ ability to repay their loans related to the particular types of credentials they are earning. The figure also shows that in some cases, using a borrower’s type of credential may be woefully inadequate for predicting their likely earnings. For example, the median salary of jd graduates, at about $91,000, is about 50 percent more than that of master of social work (msw) graduates ($60,000) and 35 percent less than that of doctor of pharmacy (pharmd) graduates ($139,000).
but the median graduate of some law schools earns less than an msw graduate earning at the 25th percentile (lower than 75 percent of their peers), while the typical graduate of high-performing law schools earns over $100,000 more than a pharmd graduate earning more than 75 percent of their peers. In other words, for some credential programs like jds, the particular institution’s program is a very important predictor of students’ future earnings. However, legal concerns might prevent lenders from using that signal to offer more credit to those in high-performing programs.
discussion and recommendations
among borrowers affected by the new loan limits, nearly 40 percent have either little credit history or a credit score likely too low to secure a private loan unless they have a parent or other creditworthy cosigner.31 on the one hand, the majority of affected borrowers may be able to secure private loans on their own. Past research suggests that many of them may qualify for better upfront loan terms in the private market.32 on the other hand, they would not get the insurance and potential forgiveness benefits of federal loans (e.G., Through income-driven repayment and public service loan forgiveness).
to the extent that borrowers can secure private loans based on backward-looking underwriting criteria, the transition to more private rather than federal borrowing may blunt the negative effects of the new limits on wealthier students’ access to advanced degrees. But this may also mean a limited impact on lowering tuition prices and steering students toward programs with higher financial value.33
for the large number of borrowers who lack the credit to obtain loans on their own, their ability to enroll in graduate school will hinge on whether private lenders can (or will) use forward-looking signals to finance their ambitions.
importantly, problems would remain even if lenders fully adopted forward-looking underwriting practices. For instance, borrowers with little credit history or subprime credit scores would face challenges accessing fields that are lower paying but have high social value—like mental health counseling or the arts. In some cases, borrowers who represent a low credit risk or have access to cosigners would still find themselves with access to too-large loans for low-value or lower-earning programs and without the safety net that would be available on federal student loans. The terms on private loans also may be less favorable for many borrowers than were those for grad plus. Additionally, new and complicated credit products like income-share agreements will need to be closely monitored to prevent abuses and ensure a healthy lending environment. There is reason to be cautious about the sector. Reckless and predatory private lending throughout the early 2000s that targeted low-income students, even in low-value programs in the for-profit sector, was part of the original impetus for creating the grad plus loan program.
policymakers should take these challenges seriously. Unlimited federal lending without underwriting undoubtedly resulted in abuse by students, colleges, and their agents, with many students enrolling in programs involving unjustifiable and un-repayable levels of debt. Imperfections in the private market for student loans risk some of the same sins for students with strong credit, with the added risk that many disadvantaged students may be denied access to valuable advanced education programs.
encouraging more private-sector involvement in graduate lending while shrinking the federal footprint is an ongoing effort to address these long-standing challenges. However, questions remain about whether a predominantly federal system with more effective accountability policies would better rein in abuses and target credit to productive investments while preserving the access benefits of federal loans.
one key area where the government could contribute is by addressing the lack of key data available for various stakeholders. At present, lenders lack key information to accurately price risk, and they also have concerns about which forward-looking criteria might invite fair-lending scrutiny if used in underwriting. Regulators also lack information on loan applications, origination decisions, and loan terms to monitor fair-lending practices. Finally, researchers and policymakers lack comprehensive data on borrowers’ loan terms and future repayment and labor market outcomes to assess how student loan policies affect students’ success and loan programs’ costs.
these challenges could be addressed by creating a secure linked repository of existing administrative records combined from lender, credit bureau, and government administrative data. The repository would include the following:
- loan application data. The repository would include all loan applications for student loans from all lenders over a de minimis amount of student loan volume, with the action taken by the lender (e.G., Approved or denied), modeled after reporting under the home mortgage disclosure act. This file would include key information on the applicant and cosigners, loan and repayment terms, underwriting criteria, and any automatic underwriting system result. It would also include information from government loans alongside private ones (including institutional loans).
- credit bureau data. The repository would include data reporting on the monthly status and balances of the loans from origination through termination or payoff and data on each individual’s financial situation (including credit score and status of other accounts).
- census bureau data. The repository would include information on individuals’ earnings and family size, derived from tax records, and information on membership in protected classes (e.G., Race and sex, derived from reports on the decennial census).
the national mortgage database, which the consumer financial protection bureau and the federal housing finance agency jointly fund, combines data from home mortgage disclosure act reporting and credit bureaus. Like that database, this repository could generate tiered access to different types of data for different users. Lenders could access anonymized loan-level data with borrower, loan, and key application characteristics used in underwriting, along with key loan performance metrics, to facilitate estimation of underwriting models. More detailed information, including merged information from the census bureau on sex and race or ethnicity, could be made available to regulators to monitor fair-lending concerns. And anonymized data could be shared with government and private researchers to monitor the functioning of the higher education finance system and the effects of policy on student success and repayment.
with these data in place to facilitate transparency into lending practices, congress could consider offering lenders added flexibilities around the equal credit opportunity act in the form of a time-limited safe harbor. Such flexibilities would permit lenders to experiment for a limited time with developing new underwriting models on forward-looking signals of borrowers’ ability to repay loans. These flexibilities would be offered in exchange for added transparency about the underwriting model details used and continued participation in the data system described above. The government agency holding the data could evaluate the new model for disparate impact using the data above. The results showing how the new model affects the share of applications approved and loan terms, as well as subsequent loan performance, could be disseminated to the field. If the results show significant disparate impact risks, the safe harbor would be terminated, but the lender would not be subject to further consequences for loans made during the experimentation period.
while the ultimate balance between federal and private provision of graduate loans will continue to be debated, under the current obbba loan limit regime, many students will need nonfederal loans to pursue advanced studies. Policymakers should take steps to help smooth the transition to more effective and fair private-sector underwriting in the near term while generating information to help inform future student loan policy.
- an act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to title ii of h. Con. Res. 14 (commonly known as the one big beautiful bill act), pub. L. No. 119-21, § 81001, 139 stat. 72, 334–37 (2025).
- jordan matsudaira et al., How will graduate student and parent borrowing be affected by new federal loan limits?, American university, school of public affairs, postsecondary education and economics research center, october 2025,
https://www.American.Edu/spa/peer/upload/loan-limits-from-npsas_rpt_final.Pdf. - Jennifer ma et al., Trends in college pricing and student aid 2025, college board, november 2025, 32, table sa-1 (all levels only),
https://research.Collegeboard.Org/media/pdf/trends-in-college-pricing-and-student-aid-2025-final_2.Pdf; and college board, “trends in student aid 2025: data in excel,” october 2025, tables sa-1_all and sa-1_grad,https://research.Collegeboard.Org/trends/student-aid/highlights. - Matsudaira et al., How will graduate student and parent borrowing be affected by new federal loan limits?
- us consumer financial protection bureau and us department of education, private student loans, august 29, 2012,
https://files.Consumerfinance.Gov/f/201207_cfpb_reports_private-student-loans.Pdf. - Monica bhole, “why do federal loans crowd out the private market? Evidence from graduate plus loans” (working paper, social science research network, june 24, 2017),
https://papers.Ssrn.Com/sol3/papers.Cfm?Abstract_id=3080691. - There are many reasons to doubt that student demand for loans will be unaffected—for example, they might choose less expensive programs, and some may opt not to pursue graduate study at all—and that private lenders will be willing to replace lost federal loan eligibility. This hypothetical scenario is meant only to give a sense of the scale of the impact of the new loan limits. The analysis details for the estimate here are explained in matsudaira et al., How will graduate student and parent borrowing be affected by new federal loan limits?
- the full criteria are laid out in 34 c.F.R. § 685.200(c)(2)(viii)(b).
- joseph g. Altonji and zhengren zhu, do graduate degrees pay off? Estimates from texas administrative data, postsecondary education and economics research center, march 2026,
https://www.Peer-center.Org/research/do-graduate-degrees-pay-off; and joseph g. Altonji and zhengren zhu, “returns to specific graduate degrees: estimates using texas administrative records,” working paper no. 33530 (national bureau of economic research, february 2025),https://www.Nber.Org/papers/w33530. - This distinction between backward- and forward-looking criteria is discussed in andrew p. Kelly and kevin j. James, looking backward or looking forward? Exploring the private student loan market, american enterprise institute, june 1, 2016,
https://www.Aei.Org/research-products/report/looking-backward-or-looking-forward-exploring-the-private-student-loan-market/. - Jennifer zhang and peter granville, access denied: how 40% of americans are locked out of the private student loan market, protect borrowers and century foundation, march 31, 2026,
https://protectborrowers.Org/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/access-denied-private-student-loan-report.Pdf. - For the industry report, see enterval analytics, enterval private student loan semi annual report q3 2025, january 26, 2026,
https://www.Enterval.Com/media/files/enterval/psl/enterval-private-student-loan-semi-annual-report-q3-2025.Pdf?V=20260124t000840. Using credit panel data from an earlier period (originated private graduate loans from 2015–24), a federal reserve bank of philadelphia report finds that about 5 percent of all graduate students had a private loan, and of that group, 54 percent had a cosigner. Tomás monarrez et al., Student loans for graduate school: who will be affected by the new federal lending limits?, Federal reserve bank of philadelphia, consumer finance institute, december 2025,https://www.Philadelphiafed.Org/-/media/frbp/assets/consumer-finance/reports/student-loans-for-graduate-school.Pdf. - Enterval analytics, enterval private student loan semi annual report q3 2025, 42.
- matsudaira et al., How will graduate student and parent borrowing be affected by new federal loan limits?, 6.
- i thank sarah turner for suggesting this figure.
- melissa korn and andrea fuller, “‘financially hobbled for life’: the elite master’s degrees that don’t pay off,” the wall street journal, july 8, 2021,
https://www.Wsj.Com/articles/financially-hobbled-for-life-the-elite-masters-degrees-that-dont-pay-off-11625752773. - For example, program performance data that the us department of education released in 2026 show that 7.9 percent of master’s degree, 38.8 percent of doctoral degree, and 61.3 percent of professional programs (among those with reported earnings) have four-year median earnings that are less than graduates’ median debt at graduation. For many professional and doctoral programs, particularly those in medicine, these numbers likely overstate the prevalence of overborrowing because earnings growth tends to be very high just beyond the four-year postgraduation point of measurement. Author’s calculations using us department of education, 2026 program performance data, 2026,
https://www.Ed.Gov/laws-and-policy/higher-education-laws-and-policy/higher-education-policy/negotiated-rulemaking-for-higher-education-2025-2026. - Private lenders often used dte metrics to underwrite lending based on current measures of income. This measure is different and is meant to reflect the (presumably) higher earnings program graduates will make in assessing whether the borrower will be able to afford their debt.
- many programs cannot be matched to information about the dte ratio of typical graduates. In aggregate, about one-third (35.9 percent) of all graduate loans over the new loan limits are extended to students in such programs.
- author’s calculations using us department of education, 2026 program performance data.
- monarrez et al., Student loans for graduate school.
- for example, a recent industry report suggests that cautious, data-driven lenders require a credit score over 660 for loans over $10,000. See consumer bankers association, recent graduate student lending reform: analysis and recommendations, january 2026,
https://consumerbankers.Com/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/cba_recent-graduate-student-lending-reform-analysis_01.2026-2.Pdf. This is similar to the median threshold of 670 reported by lenders in zhang and granville, access denied. - Over a decade ago, kelly and james interviewed several experts in the student lending business who raised the concerns noted here. Kelly and james, looking backward or looking forward? Over the past year, i have continued to hear industry leaders cite these challenges in discussions of how the industry is preparing for obbba to take full effect.
- in other ways, however, the new infrastructure carries some risks, including aggregating the data of certain programs together when they are too small to have data produced on their own, potentially degrading the quality of information available on those other larger programs with which they are combined.
- for example, the economists jeffrey t. Denning and lesley j. Turner have found six-year graduate program completion rates for texas public and nonprofit programs of just 58 percent, with pronounced differences by field of study and institution selectivity. See jeffrey t. Denning and lesley j. Turner, “the graduation part ii: graduate program graduation rates,” journal of public economics 248 (2025): 105422,
https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.Jpubeco.2025.105422. - Sherrod brown et al. To kathleen kraninger, july 30, 2020,
https://www.Banking.Senate.Gov/imo/media/doc/2020-07-30_letter%20to%20cfpb%20re%20use%20of%20educational%20data.Pdf; and us senate committee on banking, housing, and urban affairs, use of educational data to make credit determinations, july 2020,https://www.Banking.Senate.Gov/imo/media/doc/review%20-%20use%20of%20educational%20data.Pdf. - Us consumer financial protection bureau and us department of education, private student loans, 80.
- us department of justice, office of public affairs, “justice department secures settlement to resolve discrimination claims in student loans against southeast bank,” press release, january 19, 2025,
https://www.Justice.Gov/archives/opa/pr/justice-department-secures-settlement-resolve-discrimination-claims-student-loans-against. - There are exceptions to this generalization. Several companies noted earlier in the report indeed claim to underwrite based on future income potential, presumably using some aggregate institution or program proxies, though the details of their methods are unclear.
- see american bankers association, “cfpb finalizes rule to revise fair lending enforcement,” aba banking journal, april 21, 2026,
https://bankingjournal.Aba.Com/2026/04/cfpb-finalizes-rule-to-revise-fair-lending-enforcement/. - Monarrez et al., Student loans for graduate school.
- bhole, “why do federal loans crowd out the private market?”
- of course, the lack of income-driven repayment or public service loan forgiveness program availability may per se make students less inclined to pursue low-value programs, but there is to date little evidence to suggest students’ program enrollment choices are sensitive to these considerations. |
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| The effects of physical exercise interventions on executive function in children |
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Abstract
physical exercise has been increasingly recognized as a potential non-pharmacological approach for improving executive function in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (asd). This study systematically examined the effects of physical exercise on executive function in this population. Randomized controlled trials (rcts) were systematically retrieved from pubmed, web of science, and other electronic databases. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the cochrane risk of bias 2 (rob 2) tool. Meta-analyses were conducted using the metafor package in r, with three-level and two-level random-effects models applied to account for dependent effect sizes. A total of 19 studies involving 714 participants were included. The three-level model showed that physical exercise significantly improved inhibitory control (g = 0.70, 95% ci [0.09, 1.31], p < 0.05) and cognitive flexibility (g = 0.59, 95% ci [0.29, 0.90], p < 0.001), with these findings supported by the two-level model. The effect on working memory was not statistically significant in the three-level model (g = 0.31, 95% ci [?0.40, 1.01], p > 0.05), although a significant positive effect was observed in the two-level model (g = 0.41, 95% ci [0.01, 0.85], p < 0.05). Subgroup analyses indicated significant improvements across executive function domains following interventions lasting >8 weeks, although between-subgroup differences were not statistically significant. Meta-regression further showed that total intervention duration significantly predicted improvements in cognitive flexibility. The certainty of evidence was rated as moderate according to the grade approach. Overall, physical exercise may be a promising adjunctive strategy for supporting executive function in children and adolescents with asd, particularly inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. However, the findings should be interpreted cautiously given the substantial heterogeneity, wide prediction intervals, and potential small-study effects.
systematic review registration: https://www.Crd.York.Ac.Uk/prospero/view/crd420251165448, identifier (crd420251165448).
1 introduction
against the backdrop of the steadily increasing prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders among children and adolescents worldwide, autism spectrum disorder (asd) has emerged as a major public health concern that seriously compromises their physical and mental health. Global epidemiological evidence indicates that approximately one in every 100 children and adolescents is diagnosed with asd, with its prevalence continuing to rise over time (zeidan et al., 2022). In addition to the core symptoms of social communication deficits and restricted, repetitive behaviors, children with asd commonly exhibit pervasive impairments in executive function. Previous studies have demonstrated that executive function deficits may adversely affect planning and organization, logical reasoning, emotion regulation, sustained attention, inhibitory control, and behavioral regulation in children with asd (lai et al., 2017; kim et al., 2020; donnelly et al., 2016; pellicano et al., 2017). These impairments may further exacerbate restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior (hill, 2004), communication difficulties (bishop and norbury, 2005), and social deficits (geurts et al., 2009), thereby substantially hindering social adaptation and integration while imposing considerable economic burdens on families and society. Consequently, identifying an effective intervention capable of improving executive function in children with asd has become a critical priority in the fields of special education and rehabilitation medicine.
executive function comprises a set of higher-order cognitive skills that are essential for successful goal-directed behavior. It is generally conceptualized as consisting of three core domains: (1) inhibitory control, the ability to deliberately suppress impulsive responses; (2) cognitive flexibility, the mental capacity to selectively shift attention between tasks or adapt to changing demands; and (3) working memory, the cognitive ability to temporarily store and manipulate relevant information for decision-making, planning, and organization (kaushanskaya et al., 2017). Given concerns regarding the side effects associated with pharmacological treatments and the high cost of behavioral interventions, physical exercise has emerged as a non-pharmacological, low-cost, and readily implementable auxiliary intervention for children with asd. Growing evidence has demonstrated that physical exercise can significantly improve overall executive function in children with asd (tse et al., 2021; liang et al., 2022). For example, zhao et al. Implemented a 12-week aquatic exercise intervention consisting of four 60 ~ 70 min sessions per week for 30 children with asd. Their findings showed significant improvements in inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in the intervention group, whereas no significant improvement was observed in working memory (zhao et al., 2024). In contrast, a meta-analysis by hou et al. Reported that physical exercise produced positive effects on cognitive flexibility and working memory, while its effect on inhibitory control was comparatively weaker (hou et al., 2024). These findings suggest that the effects of physical exercise differ across specific domains of executive function.
to date, several meta-analyses have investigated the effects of physical exercise on executive function in individuals with asd, providing preliminary evidence for its beneficial effects. However, differences remain across previous studies in terms of included studies, outcome measures, effect sizes, and statistical approaches, resulting in inconsistencies regarding the magnitude and statistical significance of effects across specific executive function domains (liang et al., 2022; wang h. Et al., 2025; li et al., 2026). Although some meta-analyses have further examined specific executive function subdomains, the differential effects across inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility have not been consistently clarified. Furthermore, most existing meta-analyses have employed conventional two-level models, which may not adequately account for the statistical dependence among multiple executive function outcomes or multiple effect sizes derived from the same study. Consequently, the potential sources of variability in effects across executive function domains and exercise prescription characteristics have not been fully elucidated (liang et al., 2022; li et al., 2026).
accordingly, the present study employed a three-level meta-analysis to synthesize effect sizes from studies examining the effects of physical exercise on executive function in individuals with asd. Specifically, this study systematically evaluated the effects of physical exercise on the three core domains of executive function, namely, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, and further examined the potential moderating effects of intervention duration, session duration, exercise frequency, total intervention dosage, and participant characteristics. Methodologically, this study provides a more appropriate approach for addressing the dependence among multiple effect sizes. Substantively, it further clarifies the differential effects of physical exercise across specific executive function domains and explores potential sources of variability in these effects, thereby refining previous meta-analytic evidence and providing more targeted evidence to inform future exercise-based intervention research and practice.
2 methods
this study was conducted in accordance with the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses 2020 (prisma 2020) guidelines (page et al., 2021) and followed the recommendations of the cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (chandler et al., 2019). The study protocol was prospectively registered with the international prospective register of systematic reviews (prospero) under registration number crd420251165448. As this study was a systematic review and meta-analysis based exclusively on previously published data, no new participants were recruited and no individual-level data were collected directly by the authors. Therefore, ethical approval and informed consent were not required for the present study.
2.1 literature search strategy
to comprehensively investigate the effects of physical exercise on executive function in children with asd, a systematic literature search was conducted in pubmed, embase, the cochrane library, and web of science. All relevant studies published worldwide from the inception of each database through october 2025 were retrieved. In addition, the reference lists of previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses were manually screened to identify any potentially eligible studies that might have been missed during the electronic database search.
the search strategy for the web of science core collection was developed using three sets of terms related to physical exercise, autism spectrum disorder (asd), and randomized controlled trials. The following search strategy was used as an example: ts = (“exercise” or “resistance training” or “aerobic exercise” or “exercise intervention” or “training” or “physical activity” or “sports games” or “games”) and ts = (“autism spectrum disorder” or “asd” or “asperger” or “autism” or “pervasive developmental disorders”) and ts = (“randomized controlled trial” or “randomized” or “controlled” or “trial” or “rct”). The preprint citation index was excluded from the search.
the search strategies for the other databases are provided in appendix. Two reviewers independently screened the retrieved records. Full-text articles were then assessed for eligibility according to the predefined inclusion criteria. Any disagreements were resolved through consultation with a third reviewer. The study selection process is illustrated in the prisma flow diagram (figure 1).
figure 1
2.2 eligibility criteria
the eligibility criteria were established according to the picos framework, and only peer-reviewed, full-text journal articles published in english or chinese were considered eligible for inclusion. Inclusion criteria: (1) participants: studies involving children and adolescents aged 3 ~ 14 years with a confirmed diagnosis of asd were included. Asd diagnosis had to be established using standardized diagnostic instruments, such as the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition (dsm-5), the autism diagnostic observation schedule (ados), or the autism diagnostic interview–revised (adi-r). No restrictions were placed on sex. Participants were required to be free from other acute or chronic medical conditions. (2) intervention: eligible interventions consisted of physical exercise programs, including but not limited to aerobic exercise (e.G., Running, cycling, and swimming), resistance training, ball-skill training, gymnastics, yoga, martial arts, sensorimotor integration training, and structured physical games or physical fitness programs designed for children and adolescents with asd. Interventions had to be clearly described, including the type of exercise, frequency, number of sessions per week, duration of each session, and total intervention period. The intervention duration was required to be at least 1 week to allow for the observation of changes in executive function while enabling comparisons between short- and long-term intervention effects. (3) comparison: eligible control conditions included usual care, wait-list control, non-exercise activities (e.G., Sedentary crafts or storytelling), or routine school physical education classes that did not constitute an active exercise intervention. When routine physical education classes were used as the control condition, the exercise dose had to be demonstrably lower than that of the intervention group. (4) outcomes: studies were required to report executive function outcomes, including core executive functions (i.E., Inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) or broader executive function behaviors. Outcome measures included standardized neuropsychological assessments, such as the behavior rating inventory of executive function (brief), the wisconsin card sorting test (wcst), the stroop test, the n-back task, or other validated computer-based behavioral tasks. Executive function outcomes had to be assessed using standardized instruments with established reliability and validity, objective behavioral measures, or validated teacher- or parent-reported executive function questionnaires. (5) study design: only randomized controlled trials (rcts) were included to ensure methodological rigor and strengthen causal inference.
studies that did not meet the predefined picos criteria or were not peer-reviewed, full-text journal articles were excluded. Articles published in languages other than english or chinese were excluded to maintain consistency and accuracy in the screening, data extraction, and interpretation processes. Exclusion criteria: studies were excluded if they met any of the following criteria: (1) they employed a crossover design or other non-randomized experimental designs, or were conference abstracts, study protocols, narrative reviews, or systematic reviews; (2) they lacked complete original data or sufficient information on key variables for analysis; (3) participants were excluded if they had major medical conditions that could substantially limit participation in exercise or affect the safety or response to exercise interventions (e.G., Severe psychiatric disorders or acute cardiovascular diseases), or if they were receiving medications that could substantially influence exercise-related outcomes (e.G., Sedatives or antidepressants); (4) the intervention was inadequately described, with insufficient information regarding exercise type, intensity, frequency, or duration; or (5) executive function outcomes were not reported, or the assessment instruments used lacked standardization or established reliability and validity.
2.3 data extraction and coding
two independent reviewers extracted data from all studies that met the predefined eligibility criteria. Any discrepancies were resolved through consultation with a third expert until consensus was reached. The extracted information included the first author’s details, year of publication, participant characteristics (e.G., Age, sex, and sample size), intervention characteristics (including exercise modality, duration, frequency, and intensity), and relevant outcome measures. When essential information was missing or unclear, the corresponding author of the original study was contacted for clarification.
in addition, subgroup analyses and meta-regression analyses were performed. For subgroup analyses, exercise session duration was coded as 30 ~ 45 min or 60 ~ 70 min; intervention duration was coded as ?8 weeks or >8 weeks; exercise frequency was coded as 2 sessions/week, 3 sessions/week, or 4 ~ 6 sessions/week; and control conditions were coded as usual care/passive control or active control. Weekly exercise time was calculated by multiplying the number of exercise sessions per week by the duration of each session, and the total exercise time was calculated by multiplying the weekly exercise time by the intervention duration. For studies reporting exercise session duration as a range (e.G., 40 ~ 50 min), the midpoint value (i.E., 45 min) was used for the calculations.
2.4 quality assessment
to systematically evaluate the risk of bias in the included randomized controlled trials (rcts), the revised cochrane risk of bias tool (rob 2) was employed (sterne et al., 2019). The tool assesses bias across five key domains: (1) bias arising from the randomization process; (2) bias due to deviations from intended interventions; (3) bias due to missing outcome data; (4) bias in the measurement of the outcome; and (5) bias in the selection of the reported result. Within each domain, the design and conduct of each trial were carefully examined to determine whether they were likely to introduce systematic bias. An overall risk-of-bias judgment was then made based on the assessments across all five domains and categorized as low risk of bias, some concerns, or high risk of bias.
the risk-of-bias assessment was conducted independently by two reviewers, with any disagreements resolved through discussion or consultation with a third reviewer. Importantly, no studies were excluded on the basis of their risk-of-bias ratings. All eligible trials were included regardless of whether they were judged to have a low risk of bias, some concerns, or a high risk of bias. Instead, studies assessed as having a high risk of bias were retained to ensure the comprehensiveness of the evidence base, and their potential influence on the pooled results was further examined through sensitivity analyses. This approach is consistent with current best practices in evidence synthesis, whereby risk-of-bias assessments are used to inform the interpretation of findings rather than determine study eligibility.
2.5 data analysis
because multiple effect sizes were extracted from the same study, a three-level meta-analysis was performed to account for the dependency among effect sizes within studies (cheung, 2014). All statistical analyses were conducted using the metafor package in r, with the analytical code adapted from previous studies (assink and wibbelink, 2016; liu et al., 2026). The pooled effect size for continuous outcomes was expressed as hedges’g, along with its 95% confidence interval (95% ci) and 95% prediction interval (95% pi) (hedges, 1981). For outcome measures with inconsistent scoring directions, effect sizes were recoded before analysis so that positive values consistently indicated improvement. According to conventional criteria, effect sizes were interpreted as small (g < 0.20), moderate (0.20 ? G ? 0.80), or large (g > 0.80) (cohen, 1992).
to evaluate the robustness of the findings, an influence analysis was performed to identify effect sizes that exerted a disproportionate influence on the model estimates. Effect sizes identified as potentially influential based on diagnostic plots were not considered erroneous observations but were excluded in sensitivity analyses to examine the robustness of the pooled estimates. The results of analyses excluding potentially influential effect sizes were interpreted as sensitivity analyses rather than as the primary estimates (viechtbauer and cheung, 2010).
to explore potential sources of heterogeneity, subgroup analyses and meta-regression were conducted within the three-level meta-analytic framework. Categorical moderators were examined using subgroup analyses to compare effect sizes between groups, whereas continuous moderators were assessed using meta-regression to evaluate their linear associations with effect sizes. Models were estimated using restricted maximum likelihood (reml) and included random effects at both the study level and the effect-size level to account for the dependence among multiple effect sizes derived from the same study. As both subgroup analyses and meta-regression are exploratory in nature, the findings were interpreted solely as indicators of potential sources of heterogeneity rather than evidence of causal relationships.
publication bias and small-study effects were initially evaluated through visual inspection of funnel plots and further assessed using egger’s regression test. When evidence of publication bias was detected, the trim-and-fill method was applied to estimate the potential impact of missing studies (tarsilla, 2010).
the certainty of evidence was evaluated using the grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation (grade) framework. Evidence quality was downgraded based on five domains: risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. The overall certainty of evidence was categorized as high, moderate, low, or very low (guyatt et al., 2011).
3 results
3.1 literature search results
a total of 6,947 records were identified through four electronic databases (pubmed, embase, the cochrane library, and web of science), with an additional 7 records identified through the reference lists of previous reviews, yielding a total of 6,954 records. After removing 1,788 duplicate records, 5,166 records were independently screened manually by two reviewers based on their titles and abstracts, of which 5,095 were excluded as irrelevant. Three reports could not be retrieved. The full texts of the remaining 68 articles were independently assessed for eligibility by the two reviewers, and 49 articles were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion and consensus. Ultimately, 19 studies were included in the meta-analysis (figure 1).
3.2 basic characteristics and intervention features of the included studies
a total of 19 studies published between 2013 and 2025 were included in this review. By country, 12 studies were conducted in china (including hong kong and taiwan), three in iran, and one each in the united states, canada, south korea, and the united kingdom. Across all studies, 714 children and adolescents with asd were enrolled, including 378 participants in the intervention groups and 336 in the control groups. All participants were recruited from community or school settings, and all included studies were randomized controlled trials (rcts).
in the intervention groups, all studies employed physical exercise interventions as the sole treatment modality without combining them with other therapeutic approaches. One study included two intervention groups receiving exercise at different intensity levels. The exercise modalities comprised a wide range of activities, including multicomponent physical activity programs, physical games, gymnastics training, mixed martial arts, cognitive motor games, motor skill training, cycling training, basketball training, functional exercise training, aquatic therapy, augmented reality games, yoga, and nei yang gong. Exercise frequency ranged from one to six sessions per week, intervention duration ranged from 2 to 18 weeks, and each training session lasted between 30 and 70 min. Control groups received usual activities, no intervention, or were assigned to a wait-list control. Additional intervention characteristics are presented in table 1.
table 1
| no. | Author | age(t/c, years) | sample size (t/c, n) | duration (weeks) | session duration (min) | frequency (sessions/week) | outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |
|
chan et al. (2013)11.28 ± 3.90
chen et al. (2024)deng et al. (2025)faraji et al. (2023)ji and yang (2021)12.8 ± 2.69
ji et al. (2022)macoun et al. (2021)rafiei milajerdi et al. (2021)17/20
nekar et al. (2022)pan et al. (2017)phung and goldberg (2019)tse et al. (2019)9.81 ± 1.17
tanksale et al. (2021)9.46 (1.38)/8–12
tse et al. (2021)9.55 ± 1.57
9.85 ± 1.31
20/20
wang et al. (2020)wu et al. (2025)8.75 ± 1.98
wang q. Et al. (2025)7.63 ± 1.58
zhao et al. (2024)10.79 ± 1.051
basic characteristics of the included studies.
t, intervention group; c, control group. Outcome measures: ? Inhibitory control; ? Working memory; ? Cognitive flexibility.
3.3 quality assessment of the included studies
the methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the cochrane risk of bias 2 (rob 2) tool. Among the 19 included studies, 16 were judged to have a low risk of bias in the randomization process. Sixteen studies were judged to have concerns regarding deviations from intended interventions, 17 regarding missing outcome data, all 19 regarding measurement of the outcome, and all 19 regarding selection of the reported result. Overall, 12 studies were judged to have a low overall risk of bias, 4 were judged to have a high overall risk of bias, and 3 were judged to raise some concerns (figure 2).
figure 2
3.4 heterogeneity analysis
a three-level random-effects model was used to examine the sources of heterogeneity in effect sizes across different dimensions of executive function. For inhibitory control, the overall heterogeneity test was statistically significant (q(26) = 208.86, p < 0.001), indicating substantial heterogeneity among the included studies. Further likelihood ratio tests (lrts) showed a significant variance component at level 2 (lrt = 45.53, p < 0.001), whereas the variance component at level 3 was not significant (lrt = 1.05, p > 0.05). Variance decomposition indicated that sampling error, within-study variance, and between-study variance accounted for 10.58%, 55.95%, and 33.47% of the total variance, respectively, suggesting that the heterogeneity in effect sizes for inhibitory control was primarily attributable to within-study differences.
for working memory, the overall heterogeneity test was statistically significant (q(24) = 89.44, p < 0.001), indicating significant heterogeneity among the included studies. The variance component at level 2 was not significant (lrt = 0.61, p > 0.05), whereas the variance component at level 3 was significant (lrt = 10.37, p < 0.001). Variance decomposition showed that sampling error, within-study variance, and between-study variance accounted for 25.66%, 9.14%, and 65.20% of the total variance, respectively, indicating that the heterogeneity in effect sizes for working memory was primarily attributable to between-study differences.
for cognitive flexibility, the overall heterogeneity test was statistically significant (q(32) = 53.45, p < 0.05). The variance component at level 2 was not significant (lrt = 0.00, p > 0.05), whereas the variance component at level 3 was significant (lrt = 10.90, p < 0.05). Variance decomposition indicated that sampling error, within-study variance, and between-study variance accounted for 48.12%, 0.00%, and 51.88% of the total variance, respectively, suggesting that the heterogeneity in effect sizes for cognitive flexibility was primarily attributable to sampling error and between-study differences.
3.5 publication bias
publication bias was assessed using funnel plots, egger’s regression test, and the trim-and-fill method. The funnel plots indicated a certain degree of asymmetry in the distribution of hedges’g under the random-effects model (supplementary figures s1–s3). Consistent with this observation, egger’s regression test revealed evidence of small-study effects for inhibitory control (t = 2.58, p < 0.05), working memory (t = 3.65, p < 0.01), and cognitive flexibility (t = 2.96, p < 0.01). The trim-and-fill analysis was subsequently conducted to adjust for potential publication bias. After adjustment, the pooled effect sizes for working memory (g = 0.51, p < 0.01) and cognitive flexibility (g = 0.34, p < 0.001) remained largely unchanged. In contrast, the effect size for inhibitory control changed substantially and its direction was reversed (g = 0.19, p > 0.05). Therefore, this finding should be interpreted with caution.
3.6 sensitivity analysis
a leave-one-out sensitivity analysis was conducted by sequentially excluding each study and re-estimating the pooled effect size. The results showed that, for inhibitory control, after excluding ji et al. (2022) (supplementary figure s4), the pooled effect sizes became statistically significant under both the three-level random-effects model (g = 0.61, 95% ci = [0.11, 1.12], p < 0.05, 95% pi = [?1.55, 2.78]) and the two-level random-effects model (g = 0.57, 95% ci = [0.15, 0.99], p < 0.05, 95% pi = [?1.51, 2.65]) (supplementary figure s5). For working memory, after excluding macoun et al. (2021) (supplementary figure s6), the pooled effect sizes were also statistically significant under both the three-level random-effects model (g = 0.57, 95% ci = [0.18, 0.96], p < 0.05, 95% pi = [?0.72, 1.87]) and the two-level random-effects model (g = 0.51, 95% ci = [0.22, 0.81], p < 0.05, 95% pi = [?0.80, 1.83]) (supplementary figure s7). For cognitive flexibility, after excluding wu et al. (2025) (supplementary figure s8), the pooled effect sizes remained statistically significant under both the three-level random-effects model (g = 0.53, 95% ci = [0.27, 0.80], p < 0.001, 95% pi = [?0.28, 1.35]) and the two-level random-effects model (g = 0.49, 95% ci = [0.33, 0.66], p < 0.001, 95% pi = [?0.13, 1.11]) (supplementary figure s9). Therefore, all subsequent analyses, including heterogeneity analysis, subgroup analysis, meta-regression, and publication bias assessment, were conducted after excluding the influential studies.
3.7 meta-analysis results
3.7.1 inhibitory control
a total of 15 studies, comprising 27 effect sizes, were included to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on inhibitory control in individuals with asd. A three-level random-effects model was employed for the meta-analysis, and the results indicated that exercise interventions produced a significant improvement in inhibitory control (g = 0.70, 95% ci = [0.09, 1.31], p < 0.05), with a 95% pi of [?1.81, 3.20]. To verify the robustness of the findings, a two-level random-effects model was subsequently applied. The results likewise demonstrated a significant positive effect of exercise interventions on inhibitory control (g = 0.69, 95% ci = [0.22, 1.16], p < 0.01, 95% pi = [?1.71, 3.09]). These findings indicate that exercise interventions exert a robust beneficial effect on inhibitory control in individuals with asd.
3.7.2 working memory
a total of 12 studies, comprising 25 effect sizes, were included to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on working memory in individuals with asd. A three-level random-effects model showed that exercise interventions did not produce a statistically significant improvement in working memory (g = 0.31, 95% ci = [?0.40, 1.01], p > 0.05), with a 95% pi of [?2.24, 2.85]. However, the two-level random-effects model yielded a statistically significant effect (g = 0.41, 95% ci = [0.01, 0.85], p < 0.05, 95% pi = [?1.50, 2.32]). As the three-level model more adequately accounts for the nested structure among effect sizes, these findings suggest that the potential beneficial effect of exercise on working memory in individuals with asd requires further confirmation through additional studies.
3.7.3 cognitive flexibility
a total of 13 studies, comprising 33 effect sizes, were included to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive flexibility in individuals with asd. A three-level random-effects model was employed for the primary analysis. The results indicated that exercise interventions produced a significant improvement in cognitive flexibility (g = 0.59, 95% ci = [0.29, 0.90], p < 0.001), with a 95% pi of [?0.39, 1.58]. To verify the robustness of the findings, a two-level random-effects model was subsequently applied. The results likewise demonstrated that exercise interventions significantly improved cognitive flexibility (g = 0.54, 95% ci = [0.36, 0.73], p < 0.001, 95% pi = [?1.26, 1.35]). These findings suggest that exercise interventions have a significant and relatively robust positive effect on cognitive flexibility in individuals with asd.
3.8 subgroup and meta-regression analyses
3.8.1 inhibitory control
the subgroup analyses for inhibitory control (supplementary table s1) indicated that exercise session duration, weekly exercise frequency, intervention duration, and control group type did not significantly moderate the intervention effects, with no statistically significant between-subgroup differences observed for any of the examined factors (all p > 0.05). Although a significant effect was observed in the >8-week intervention subgroup (g = 0.86, 95% ci = [0.12, 1.60], p < 0.05), the effect in the ? 8-week subgroup was not significant (g = 0.39, 95% ci = [?0.32, 1.09], p > 0.05), and the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant (f(1, 25) = 0.91, p > 0.05). Similarly, a significant effect was observed in the conventional/passive control subgroup (g = 0.66, 95% ci = [0.08, 1.23], p < 0.05), whereas the active control subgroup showed no significant effect (g = 0.38, 95% ci = [?1.10, 1.87], p > 0.05); however, the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant (f(1, 25) = 0.12, p > 0.05).
three-level meta-regression analyses were further conducted to examine the moderating effects of mean age (? = ?0.0305), total weekly exercise time (? = ?0.0009), and total intervention time (? = 0.0003) on the effect sizes for inhibitory control (supplementary table s2). None of the three moderators reached statistical significance (all p > 0.05), suggesting that neither participant age nor exercise dose-related variables significantly explained the between-study heterogeneity in effect sizes. Although total intervention time showed a positive predictive trend, the association did not reach statistical significance.
3.8.2 working memory
the subgroup analysis for working memory (supplementary table s3) showed that the between-subgroup differences for exercise duration per session, exercise frequency per week, and intervention duration were not statistically significant (all p > 0.05), indicating that none of these exercise prescription characteristics significantly moderated the intervention effects. Although significant effects were observed for interventions lasting 60 ~ 70 min per session (g = 0.72, 95% ci = [0.13, 1.31], p < 0.05), those conducted 3 times per week (g = 1.03, 95% ci = [0.43, 1.62], p < 0.01), and those lasting more than 8 weeks (g = 0.70, 95% ci = [0.12, 1.28], p < 0.05), the corresponding between-subgroup differences were not statistically significant (exercise duration per session: f(1, 23) = 0.46, p > 0.05; exercise frequency per week: f(1, 23) = 2.33, p > 0.05; intervention duration: f(1, 23) = 0.37, p > 0.05). The analysis of heterogeneity sources revealed that level 3 heterogeneity accounted for the largest proportion of the total variance, indicating that between-study differences remained the primary source of variability in the effect sizes for working memory.
the three-level meta-regression analysis (supplementary table s4) demonstrated that mean age (? = ?0.0064), total weekly exercise time (? = 0.0009), and total intervention duration (? = 0.0002) were not significant moderators (all p > 0.05). These findings indicate that the above variables could not significantly explain the between-study heterogeneity in the effects of exercise interventions on working memory in children.
3.8.3 cognitive flexibility
subgroup analyses of cognitive flexibility (supplementary table s5) showed that the between-subgroup differences across exercise duration per session, exercise frequency per week, intervention duration, and control group type were not statistically significant (all p > 0.05), indicating that none of these factors significantly moderated the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive flexibility. Significant effects were observed for both 30 ~ 45 min (g = 0.59, 95% ci = [0.23, 0.94], p < 0.01) and 60 ~ 70 min (g = 0.46, 95% ci = [0.02, 0.90], p < 0.05) of exercise per session, although the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant (f(1, 31) = 0.20, p > 0.05). Similarly, significant effects were observed for exercise performed 3 times per week (g = 0.51, 95% ci = [0.11, 0.91], p < 0.05) and 5 ~ 6 times per week (g = 0.97, 95% ci = [0.40, 1.54], p < 0.01), with no significant between-subgroup difference (f(2, 30) = 1.75, p > 0.05). For intervention duration, significant effects were observed in both the ? 8-week subgroup (g = 0.45, 95% ci = [0.09, 0.81], p < 0.05) and the >8-week subgroup (g = 0.65, 95% ci = [0.23, 1.07], p < 0.01), but the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant (f(1, 31) = 0.54, p > 0.05). Regarding control group type, the conventional/passive control subgroup showed a significant effect (g = 0.51, 95% ci = [0.21, 0.80], p < 0.01), whereas the active control subgroup did not (g = 0.69, 95% ci = [?0.03, 1.41], p > 0.05); however, the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant (f(1, 31) = 0.23, p > 0.05). Heterogeneity analysis based on the three-level meta-analytic model indicated that level 3 heterogeneity accounted for the largest proportion of the total variance, suggesting that between-study differences remained the primary source of effect size variability.
a three-level meta-regression analysis was further conducted to examine the effects of potential moderators on cognitive flexibility (supplementary table s6). The results indicated that mean age was not a significant predictor of the effect size (? = ?0.0163, p > 0.05). Total weekly exercise duration showed a positive predictive trend but did not reach statistical significance (? = 0.0041, p > 0.05). In contrast, total intervention duration significantly and positively moderated the effects of exercise on cognitive flexibility (? = 0.0003, p < 0.05), suggesting that greater cumulative exposure to exercise interventions may lead to greater improvements in cognitive flexibility among children.
3.9 grade assessment of the quality of evidence
the grade approach was used to assess the certainty of evidence for the three primary outcomes. As all included studies were randomized controlled trials (rcts), the certainty of evidence was initially rated as high and assessed across five domains: risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. The certainty of evidence was evaluated separately for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Potential concerns regarding risk of bias, inconsistency, imprecision, and publication bias were considered for each outcome. In particular, evidence of small-study effects and potential publication bias was identified across the three outcomes and was considered in the grade assessment. The specific domains downgraded and the reasons for downgrading are presented in table 2. Following the outcome-specific assessment, the certainty of evidence was rated as moderate for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Overall, the current moderate-certainty evidence suggests that exercise interventions may improve executive function in individuals with asd, although the findings should be interpreted in light of the identified methodological limitations and potential publication bias.
table 2
| outcome | risk of bias | inconsistency | indirectness | imprecision | publication bias | reasons for downgrading | certainty |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| inhibitory control | not serious | serious | not serious | not serious | serious | inconsistency; publication bias | moderate |
| working memory | serious | not serious | not serious | serious | not serious | risk of bias; imprecision | moderate |
| cognitive flexibility | not serious | serious | not serious | not serious | serious | inconsistency; publication bias | moderate |
grade assessment of the certainty of evidence for the primary outcomes.
4 discussion
this study employed a three-level meta-analysis to synthesize 85 effect sizes from 19 studies, systematically evaluating the effects of physical exercise on executive function in children and adolescents with asd and exploring potential moderating mechanisms. The results demonstrated that physical exercise produced moderate improvements in inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, whereas the evidence for improvements in working memory remains inconclusive and requires further verification. The subgroup and meta-regression analyses indicated that the beneficial effects of physical exercise on executive function in children and adolescents with asd were generally robust. However, the sensitivity of different executive function subdomains to exercise dosage varied. Specifically, no significant dose-related moderating factors were identified for inhibitory control or working memory, whereas cognitive flexibility appeared to be more sensitive to the cumulative duration of exercise. These findings suggest that long-term, sustained participation in physical exercise may be an important factor in promoting the development of executive function, although the optimal exercise prescription has yet to be determined. Furthermore, the heterogeneity analysis based on the three-level model revealed distinct sources of heterogeneity across the three executive function subdomains. For inhibitory control, heterogeneity was primarily attributable to within-study variability, whereas for working memory and cognitive flexibility, heterogeneity mainly originated from between-study differences. Across all three subdomains, the random-effects component accounted for the largest proportion of the total heterogeneity, suggesting that, in addition to exercise dosage, factors such as participant characteristics, the design of exercise interventions, implementation strategies, and differences in assessment instruments may jointly influence the effectiveness of exercise interventions.
4.1 effects of physical exercise on inhibitory control in children and adolescents with asd
the present study found that physical exercise may improve inhibitory control in children and adolescents with asd, suggesting that exercise may serve as a promising auxiliary intervention for supporting executive control. Inhibitory control is a core component of executive function, responsible for suppressing prepotent responses, resisting interference from irrelevant stimuli, and maintaining goal-directed behavior. It plays a crucial role in social adaptation, learning ability, and behavioral regulation in individuals with asd (diamond, 2013). Previous studies have consistently shown that children and adolescents with asd exhibit deficits in inhibitory control, including impaired response inhibition, difficulties in attentional regulation, and increased impulsive behaviors, which are closely associated with atypical development of the prefrontal executive control network (demetriou et al., 2018). Therefore, physical exercise may support behavioral regulation in individuals with asd by facilitating the development of cognitive control processes.
from a behavioral perspective, the beneficial effects of physical exercise on inhibitory control may stem from the cognitive control demands involved in exercise. Many forms of physical activity require individuals to select appropriate actions, adjust responses, and monitor errors according to task rules, environmental changes, and goal requirements. Previous studies have shown that regular physical exercise can improve performance on tasks assessing response inhibition and attentional control, suggesting that repeated exercise experiences may strengthen executive control through continuous practice (chen et al., 2014). For individuals with asd, the repetitive practice and immediate feedback provided within structured exercise environments may further support sustained attention, behavioral regulation, and goal-directed behavior. In addition, physical exercise may promote inhibitory control through neuroplasticity. Exercise has been associated with increased bdnf expression, enhanced synaptic plasticity, and improved functioning of neural networks involved in executive control (hull et al., 2017; voss et al., 2011). Exercise-induced modulation of neurotransmitter systems may also influence sustained attention, impulse control, and goal maintenance (basso and suzuki, 2016). Thus, the effects of physical exercise on inhibitory control may reflect the combined influence of behavioral practice and neuroadaptive changes.
further analyses showed that exercise duration, exercise frequency, intervention duration, and age did not significantly moderate the effects on inhibitory control. Although interventions lasting more than 8 weeks showed a statistically significant pooled effect, the between-subgroup difference was not significant; therefore, this finding should not be interpreted as evidence that longer interventions are more effective than shorter ones. Previous studies have suggested that exercise-related improvements in executive function may depend not only on exercise volume but also on the cognitive demands involved, such as decision-making, rule switching, and adaptation to changing environments (tsuk et al., 2019). Moreover, adherence may affect the actual amount of physical activity received by participants, meaning that the prescribed exercise dose may not fully reflect the dose actually completed and may contribute to variability in intervention effects. Overall, the present findings do not establish an optimal exercise dosage or a clear dose–response relationship for inhibitory control.
importantly, the observed pooled benefit should also be interpreted in light of uncertainty across studies. The prediction interval indicated considerable variability in the effects that may be observed in future comparable studies, while the significant small-study effects and attenuation of the pooled effect in the trim-and-fill analysis further suggest that potential publication bias or missing studies may have influenced the observed estimate. Thus, the evidence does not support characterizing the effect as uniformly consistent or definitive. In addition, because studies generally excluded participants with major medical conditions that could substantially limit physical-activity participation or affect intervention responses, the findings may be more applicable to relatively healthier children and adolescents with asd and should be generalized cautiously to those with substantial medical comorbidities or different health profiles. Overall, physical exercise may be a promising approach for supporting inhibitory control in children and adolescents with asd, but the magnitude and generalizability of this effect remain uncertain and warrant further investigation.
4.2 effects of physical exercise on working memory in children and adolescents with asd
working memory is responsible for the temporary storage, updating, and manipulation of information and serves as a fundamental cognitive system supporting learning, reasoning, and the regulation of complex behaviors (baddeley, 2012). Children and adolescents with asd commonly exhibit impairments in working memory, which are associated with insufficient attentional resource allocation, reduced efficiency of information integration, and limited cognitive flexibility (wang et al., 2017). Therefore, investigating the effects of physical exercise on working memory may help clarify how physical activity contributes to cognitive development in individuals with asd.
physical exercise may promote working memory by enhancing information-processing efficiency and the allocation of task-relevant cognitive resources. Exercise involving rule constraints, movement sequences, and continuous environmental feedback requires individuals to maintain goal-related information, anticipate action outcomes, and adapt behavioral strategies during task performance. These processes are closely related to the updating and manipulation of information in working memory (pesce et al., 2016). Previous studies have shown that physically active interventions involving greater cognitive demands may improve working memory performance, potentially because of the sustained cognitive challenges and continuous task adaptation required during exercise (liang et al., 2022). For individuals with asd, structured exercise training may therefore provide opportunities for repeated cognitive engagement and support the encoding, maintenance, and application of task-relevant information.
however, the findings for working memory remain relatively uncertain. This may partly reflect the complexity of working memory, which involves multiple processes, including attentional allocation, information updating, and processing control, making its performance sensitive to task paradigms, assessment instruments, and individual baseline abilities (alloway, 2009; pesce, 2012). Differences in the working memory measures used across studies may therefore have contributed to variability in the observed intervention effects. Further analyses also showed that the examined exercise dose-related factors did not significantly moderate the effects on working memory. Although significant effects were observed within some exercise prescription categories, including 60 ~ 70 min per session, 3 sessions per week, and interventions lasting more than 8 weeks, the corresponding between-subgroup differences were not statistically significant. These findings do not support the conclusion that any particular exercise dose is superior to other categories. Thus, the current evidence does not establish an optimal exercise dosage or a clear dose–response relationship for working memory.
overall, physical exercise may have potential benefits for working memory in children and adolescents with asd, but the available evidence remains less consistent and conclusive than would be required to support a definitive effect. The variability in assessment approaches and intervention characteristics may partly account for this uncertainty. Future randomized controlled trials should use standardized working-memory measures and provide more detailed reporting of exercise characteristics and participant characteristics to clarify whether specific exercise modalities, cognitive demands, or individual factors influence working-memory outcomes.
4.3 effects of physical exercise on cognitive flexibility in children and adolescents with asd
cognitive flexibility refers to an individual’s ability to adjust behavioral strategies, shift thinking patterns, and adapt to changing environmental demands and novel situations (ionescu, 2012). Children and adolescents with asd commonly exhibit cognitive rigidity, repetitive behaviors, and difficulties in shifting between rules or tasks, which may limit social adaptation and problem-solving abilities (leung and zakzanis, 2014). The present study found that physical exercise may improve cognitive flexibility in individuals with asd, suggesting that exercise could support adaptive behavioral regulation and potentially alleviate some executive function difficulties associated with asd.
unlike inhibitory control and working memory, cognitive flexibility places greater emphasis on the ability to perceive changes in the external environment, utilize feedback, and adapt behavioral strategies accordingly (canas et al., 2006). Physical exercise is typically characterized by dynamic task demands and immediate feedback, requiring participants to continuously adjust their responses according to task requirements, environmental cues, and movement outcomes. Such processes may provide repeated opportunities to practice cognitive shifting and adaptive behavior. Previous studies have suggested that physical exercise involving greater cognitive engagement can promote executive function in children, potentially through continuous demands for strategy adjustment and adaptive learning during exercise (tomporowski et al., 2008). Thus, the dynamic and interactive characteristics of some exercise activities may be particularly relevant to the cognitive processes underlying flexibility.
the present analysis showed that most exercise dose-related factors did not significantly moderate the effects on cognitive flexibility. Although cumulative intervention duration was significantly associated with improvements in cognitive flexibility in the moderator analysis, this finding should be regarded as an exploratory association rather than evidence of an optimal intervention duration or a causal dose–response relationship. Similarly, significant effects were observed within both the ?8-week and >8-week intervention subgroups, but the between-subgroup difference was not statistically significant. Therefore, the effect observed in the >8-week subgroup should not be interpreted as evidence that longer interventions are superior to shorter interventions. Total weekly exercise duration was also not significantly associated with intervention effects, further suggesting that the relationship between exercise volume and cognitive flexibility is unlikely to be explained by a simple dose effect. Although complex physical activities involving rule adaptation, decision-making, and motor adjustment may place greater demands on executive processes than simple repetitive exercise (best, 2010; biino et al., 2023), the present analysis could not determine whether cognitive engagement, task complexity, or environmental interaction accounted for differences in outcomes. Moreover, the predominance of between-study heterogeneity suggests that unmeasured participant, intervention, and assessment characteristics may also contribute to variability in the observed effects (geurts et al., 2014).
overall, physical exercise may be a promising approach for supporting cognitive flexibility in children and adolescents with asd. However, the prediction interval indicates that the magnitude and direction of effects may vary across future comparable studies, and the observed pooled benefit should therefore not be interpreted as uniformly robust or consistent. The significant association between cumulative intervention duration and cognitive flexibility provides a potential direction for future research, but further adequately powered studies are needed to clarify whether intervention duration, cognitive engagement, or participant characteristics influence responses to physical activity.
4.4 limitations of the study
(1) the types of physical exercise interventions included in this study varied considerably; therefore, further classification of exercise intervention programs is warranted. (2) due to the lack of standardized reporting criteria for intervention protocols in the currently included studies, the subgroup analyses may not fully capture the true dose–response relationship between physical exercise interventions and executive function outcomes. Therefore, further refinement of analytical approaches is needed. (3) this study primarily evaluated improvements in executive function based on behavioral measurements. (4) the included studies were conducted in specific cultural contexts, and differences in exercise habits, educational environments, and social norms may influence intervention responses and limit the generalizability of our findings across different cultural backgrounds. (5) moreover, differences in comorbid conditions and health status among children and adolescents with asd may represent potential sources of between-study heterogeneity and may limit the generalizability of the findings to those with substantial medical comorbidities. The assessment tools used across the included studies varied to some extent, which may have increased the uncertainty in effect size estimation.
5 conclusion
this study employed a three-level meta-analysis to examine the effects of physical exercise on executive function in children and adolescents with asd. Statistically significant pooled effects were observed for inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, whereas the overall effect on working memory was not statistically significant. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously given the substantial heterogeneity, wide prediction intervals, and evidence of small-study effects, particularly for inhibitory control. The available evidence also does not establish an optimal exercise dose or a clear dose–response relationship. Moreover, the exclusion of participants with major medical conditions may limit the generalizability of the findings to children and adolescents with substantial medical comorbidities or different health profiles. Overall, physical exercise may be a promising approach for supporting certain aspects of executive function in children and adolescents with asd, but the magnitude, consistency, and generalizability of these effects remain uncertain. Further well-designed studies are needed to clarify the conditions under which physical exercise may produce meaningful improvements in executive function.
statements
author contributions
qc: conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, validation, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. El: conceptualization, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing – review & editing. Jg: conceptualization, software, writing – review & editing. Mw: data curation, writing – review & editing.
funding
the author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded by the shandong provincial social science planning research project, research on the assessment and improvement strategy of students’ physical literacy in shandong province (grant no. 18ctyj13).
conflict of interest
the author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
generative ai statement
the author(s) declared that generative ai was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
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publisher’s note
all claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
supplementary material
the supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.Frontiersin.Org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1957740/full#supplementary-material
references
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summary
keywords
autism spectrum disorder, children and adolescents, executive function, meta-analysis, physical exercise
citation
chen q, li e, gao j and wu m (2026) the effects of physical exercise interventions on executive function in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a three-level meta-analysis and systematic review. Front. Psychol. 17:1957740. Doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1957740
received
04 august 2026
revised
27 september 2026
accepted
25 october 2026
published
05 november 2026
volume
17 - 2026
edited by
snehlata jaswal, sikkim university, india
reviewed by
mingyuan jia, qingdao university, china
connie kartoz, the college of new jersey, united states
updates
copyright
© 2026 chen, li, gao and wu.
this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (cc by). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*correspondence: enqi li, lienqi@sdpei.Edu.Cn
disclaimer
all claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. |
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